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The document compares and contrasts three approaches to language teaching: language-centered, learner-centered, and learning-centered. Language-centered methods focus on explicit instruction of linguistic forms through drills and dialogues. Learner-centered methods emphasize meaning-based input and focus on developing communicative competence. Learning-centered methods believe that language acquisition occurs incidentally through meaningful use and interaction, not explicit instruction, and the teacher provides comprehensible input through tasks and activities rather than pre-planned linguistic items.
Methods
- 1. In The Name Of God 1
- 2. 2
- 4. Theory of Language Language-Centered pedagogists believed in the theory of language proposed and propagated by American structural linguists during the 1950s. Structural linguists treated language as a system of systems consisting of several hierarchically linked building blocks : phonemes,morphemes,phrases,clauses,and sentences each with its own internal structure. 4
- 5. Theory of Language Learning 1. Learning to speak a language is the same as learning to ride a bicycle or drive a car. 2. Language learning is just a process of mechanical habit formation through repetition. 3. Habit formation takes place by means of analogy rather than analysis. 4. Language learning is a linear,incremental,additive process. 5. Discrete items of language should be introduced in carefully constructed dialogues embedded in a carefully selected linguistic and cultural context. 5
- 6. Theory of Language Teaching Audiolingual theory of language teaching is a mirror image of its theory of language learning. 6 1. In the initial stage: the teacher using a textbook serves as a model providing samples of linguistic input. 2. In the later stage: acts as a skillful manipulator of questions,commends,and other cues in order to elicit correct responses from the learner. The purpose of teaching is twofold:
- 7. The emphasis on dialogues also takes care of the primacy of speech as well as the strict sequencing of four language skills in terms of Listening,Speaking,Reading,and Writing. 7
- 8. Input Modifications The language centered pedagogist adopted an almost exclusive form based approach to input modifications. The language centered pedagogist believe that form- based input modifications are not only necessary and but also sufficient for the development of linguistic as well as pragmatic knowledge /ability in the L2. 8
- 9. In trying to make the from function connection explicit , language centered pedagogist assumed that contextual meaning can be analyzed sufficiently and language input can be modified suitably so as to present the learner with a useable and meaning based learning materials. 9
- 10. For purpose of teaching and testing linguistic forms Paulston and Bruder suggested three types of drills: 10 Mechanical drill Meaningful drill Communicative drill
- 11. Teaching point: practice pattern Teacher : our winter is as long as theirs. (summer/warm) Students: our summer is as warm as theirs. Mechanical drill: Teaching point : use of pattern Teacher: women's style in my country Students: women's style in my country... Meaningful drill: Teaching point : communicative use Teacher : compare with your country. Pollution Students : ( the pollution here is as bad as in my country) Communicative drill: 11
- 12. 12 Planned preoccupation with linguistic systems of the target language will automatically lead to communicative use. language learning is largely intentional. Preselected , presequence and prepackage discrete items explicitly focusing on grammar and vocabulary. Present prepackaged items, help learners to practice and to demonstrate linguistic knowledge /ability. induce intentional learning. Theoretical Assumption Organizational pattern Classroom Procedure Language Centered
- 14. Theory of Language In order to derive their theory of language, learner-centered pedagogists drew from: Chomskyan formal linguistics Hallidayan functional linguistics Hymsian sociolinguistics, and Austinian speech act theory. 14
- 15. Theory of Language Learning Learner-centered pedagogists derived their language learning theories mainly from cognitive psychologists, who dismissed the importance given to habit formation by behaviorists, and instead focused on insight formation. 15
- 16. Savignon goal areas: 1. The communicative goal 2. The cultural goal 3. The connection goal 4. The comparison goal 5. The communities goal 16
- 17. Theory of language Teaching The language teacher help learners: a) Develop the knowledge /ability to manipulate the linguistics system and use it to express their intended message. b) Understand the distinction and connection between the linguistics forms and the communicative functions. c) Develop styles and strategies required to communicate meaning in concrete situations. d) Become aware of the sociocultural norms governing the use of language appropriate to different social circumstances. 17
- 18. Language teacher must foster meaningful communication in the classroom by: Designing and using information-gap activities when learner in a pair-work exchange knows something the other learner does not. Offering choice of response to the learner, open-ended tasks and exercises where the learner determines what to say and how to say it. Emphasizing contextualization rather than decontextualized drills and pattern practices. Using authentic language as a vehicle for communication in class. Introducing language at discoursal level. Tolerating errors as a natural outcome of language development. Developing activities that integrate listening , speaking , reading , writing skills. 18
- 19. Input Modifications Learner centered pedagogists pursued a form and meaning-based approach. What learner-centered pedagogists did, and did successfully, was to make this connection explicit at the levels of syllabus design, textbook production and classroom input and interaction. 19
- 20. Littlewood presents what he calls a methodological framework consisting of : 20 Interactional activities Pre-communicative activities Structural activities Quasi communicative activities Communicative activities Functional communication activities Social interaction activities
- 21. In social interaction activity , learners have to pay greater attention to communication as a social behavior . Classroom procedures of learner centered pedagogy are largely sharing of information and the negotiation of meaning . Information gap activities , which have the potential to carry elements of unpredictability , freedom of choice , and appropriate use of language , were found to be useful and relevant . 21 One of the challenges facing the classroom teacher is : to prepare the learners to make the connection between sample interactions practiced in the classroom and the communicative demands outside the classroom .
- 22. Littelwood suggests several classroom activities that are typical of a learner-centered pedagogy for example: Discovering Missing Information Pooling Information to Solve a Problem These two examples illustrate functional communication activities . The idea behind them is that the teacher structures the situation so that learners have to overcome an information gap or solve a problem . 22
- 23. Perhaps the greatest achievement of learner-centered pedagogists is : *They successfully directed the attention of the language teaching profession to aspects of language than grammatical structures. *They heighted the fact that language is a means of conveying and receiving ideas and information as well as a tool for expressing personal needs , wants , beliefs , and desires . 23
- 24. Characteristics of Learner-Centered Teachers Acknowledge and attend to each students uniqueness Understand learning and motivation to learn Create a positive climate that feels safe and secure Assume that all students want to learn and succeed Provide choice and personal responsibility for learning 24
- 25. Characteristics of Learner-Centered Teachers Have confidence in their ability to teach and reach different students Provide high quality explanations while encouraging students to think critically and independently Provide opportunities for active learning and student engagement in learning See themselves as co-learners and partners with students in sharing responsibility for learning 25
- 26. Some aspects of learner centered teaching Focus on: Deep learning Learning for life Uses: Meta-cognitive knowledge Formative (feedback) assessment Resources responsibly to learn 26
- 27. Domains Of Learner-centered Classroom Practices: Provides for Social Needs Encourages Personal Challenge/Responsibility Adapts to Class Learning Needs Creates Positive Relationships Facilitates the Learning Process 27
- 28. 28 Planned preoccupation with linguistic and pragmatic systems of the target language will automatically lead to communicative use. language learning is largely intentional. Preselected , presequence and prepackage discrete items explicitly focusing on grammar, vocabulary and functional categories, as per learner needs, wants and situations. Present prepackaged items, help learners to practice and to demonstrate linguistic and pragmatic knowledge /ability. induce intentional learning. Theoretical Assumption Organizational pattern Classroom Procedure Learner_Centered
- 30. 30 Natural Approach : The principles and procedures of the approach have been well articulated in Krashen and Terrell . NA is on the belief that a language is best acquired when the learners focus is not directly on the language. Communicational Approach: it is based on the belief that grammar construction can take place in the absence of any explicit focus on linguistic features . It was developed through a long term project initiated and directed by Prabhu . Two learning centered methods
- 31. 31 Learning centered pedagogists have drawn from: *The Chomskyan cognitive on language learning *The Hallidays concept of learning to mean and his observation that language learned only in relation to use Theory of Language There is also an important difference between the NA and the CTP in terms of the theory of language : while the NA values sociocultural aspect of pragmatic knowledge , the CTP is concerned with developing linguistic knowledge / ability that can be used for academic.
- 32. 32 Both the NA and the CTP share a well articulated theory of language learning partially supported by research in L2 development . They both believe that L2 grammar construction can take place incidentally . The CTP treats L2 grammar construction as exclusively incidental . Theory of Language Learning
- 33. 33 Language development is incidental, not intentional. Language development is meaning focused , not form focused. Language development is comprehension based , not production based . Language development is cyclical and parallel , not sequential and additive. The language learning theory of learning centered pedagogy rests on the following four basic premises :
- 34. 34 Language development is incidental .the process of incidental learning involves the picking up of words and structures , simply by engaging in a variety of communicative activities , in particular reading and listening activities , during which the Learners attention is focused on the meaning rather than on the form of language.
- 35. 35 Palmer (1921) argued that : (a) in Learning a second Language , we learn without knowing that we are learning. (b) the utilization of the adult learners conscious attention on language militates against the proper functioning of the natural capacities of language development .
- 36. Theory of language teaching Learning centered pedagogists assert that language is best taught when it is being used to transmit messages ,not when it is explicitly taught for conscious learning. The teacher can do to keep the learner's attention on informational content rather than on the linguistic form. 36
- 37. Best characterized in terms of teacher activity in the classroom: 1. The teacher follows meaning-focused activities. 2. The teacher provides comprehensible input. 3. The teacher integrates language skills. 4. The teacher makes incidental correction. 37
- 38. The teacher follows meaning- focused activities. the learners attention is focused on: *communicative activities *problem solving tasks ( not on grammatical exercises). Instruction is seen as an instrument to promote the learners ability to understand and say something. Interaction is seen as a meaning-focused activity directed by the teacher . 38
- 39. The teacher provides comprehensible input In order to carry out meaning focused activities , it is the responsibility of the teacher to provide comprehensible input . Prabhu uses the term , Reasonable challenge , to refer to similar concept . 39
- 40. The teacher integrates language skills. The principle of comprehension before production assumes that , at least at the initial levels of L2 development , the focus is mainly on listening and reading . 40
- 41. The teacher makes incidental correction The learning centered pedagogy designed to encourage initial speech production in single words or short phrases thereby minimizing learner errors . The learner will not be forced to communicate before they are able , ready ,and willing. 41
- 42. Content Specifications Language and learner centered adhere to a product based syllabus , whereas learning centered methods adhere to a process based syllabus. *Learning centered pedagogic syllabus constitutes an indication of learning takes , rather than an index of language features. 42
- 43. According to Prabhu (1987) , the term procedure is used in at least two senses : 43 A specification of classroom activities, which bring about language learning. A specification of procedures (or steps ) of classroom activity.
- 44. Interaction as a Textual Activity Interactional modifications initiated and directed by teacher in order to provide linguistic as well as conversational signals that directly sensitize the learner to the syntactic and semantic realization of the message content . 44
- 45. Interaction as an Interpersonal activity participants in the L2 class opportunities to establish and maintain social relationships and individual identities thorough pair and / group activities . These activities are carried out through : 1.Dialogue 2. Role-plays 3.Interview 45
- 46. These affective humanistic activities , as Kradhen and Terrell (198) pointed out , have several advantages : *They have the potential to lower affective filters *Provide opportunities for interaction in the target language *Allow the use of routines and patterns * Provide comprehensible input . The CTP treats affective humanistic activities as incidental to teacher directed reasoning . Interaction as an interpersonal active through pair and group work is avoided mainly because of a risk of fossilization that is to say of learners internal systems becoming too firm soon and much less open to revision when superior data are available. 46
- 47. it is expression of ones own experience of the real or imaginary world inside , around , and beyond the classroom . Berns concludes that the CTP is focusing on learning how to mean in the Hallidayan sense and is therefore , concerned with ideational meaning . Learning centered pedagogy is exclusively and narrowly concerned with meaning based input modifications to the exclusion of explicit form- based . Interaction as an Ideational Activity 47
- 48. The amount of information needed for the learner to handle a task . The distance between the information provided and information to be arrived at as task outcome . The degree of precision called for in solving a task. The learners familiarity with purposes and constraints involved in the tasks . The degree of abstractness embedded in the task. Prabhu suggested five rough measures of task complexity 48
- 49. The primary objective of learning centered pedagogy in terms of classroom procedures is the creation of optimum learningcondition through input modifications with the view to encouraging learners to have intense contact with reasonably challenging , comprehensible input . In that sense , a learnering centered pedagogy is essentially an input oriented pedagogy . Input Modifications 49
- 50. The meaning focused activities advocated by learning centered pedagogists include what Prabhu has called : (a) Information _ gap activity . (b) Reasoning gap activity . (c) Opinion gap activity . 50
- 51. Reasoning gap activity involves deriving some new information given information through the processes of inference , deduction ,practical reasoning or perception of relationship and patterns . Information gap activity involves a transfer of given information generally calling for the decoding or encoding of information from one form another . Opinion gap activity involves identifying and articulating a personal preference, feeling or attitude . 51
- 52. Learning centered pedagogists contend that regulating inpute and teacher talk in order to provide reasonably challenging comperhensible input is qualitatively different from systematized , predetermined , linguistic input as sociated with language and learner centered pedagogies . 52
- 53. 53 Planned preoccupation with communicative use will automatically lead to the internalization of linguistic as well as pragmatic systems of the target language. language learning is largely incidental. Preselected topics and tasks focusing on their potential to promote comprehensible input and message-oriented activity. Allow language to emerge from the activity itself. Present topics & tasks, help learners to carry out activities and to demonstrate communicative ability using the language knowledge they pick up. induce incidental learning. Theoretical Assumption Organizational pattern Classroom Procedure Learning _ Centered
- 54. 54