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anatomy sensory transduction neurotransmitters neuroscience photoreceptors sleep nernst equation neuroanatomy caffeine peripheral nervous system meninges neurons central nervous system cns pns blood brain barrier cerebrospinal fluid electrophysiology ion channels membrane potential ion channel membrane conductance action potential ipsp epsp visual field retina ganglion cells bipolar cells visual cortex retinal receptive fields eye accommodation reflex optic phototransduction rhodopsin colour vision dark current cpg central pattern generator movement spinal cord reflex extrapyramidal tract pyramidal tract motor cortex locomotor region pain disorders cutaneous mechanoreceptors thermoreceptors dorsal column medial-lemniscus pathway anterolateral pathway nociceptors pain sensations sensory receptors proprioception spinal reflexes crossed extensor reflex stretch reflex golgi tendon organs flexion reflexes withdrawal reflex muscle spindles inverse myotatic reflex pathology adrenal tumor surgical approach pheochromocytoma general surgery complications electrotonic conduction synapses autonomic nervous system sympathetic parasympathetic afferent efferent ear physiology cochlea basilar membrane hair cells vestibular system semicircular canals otolith organs vestibular reflex vor cerebellum basal ganglia parkinsons disease rem sleep somatosensory system central projections