狠狠撸

Understanding Trauma
and COVID-19:
What School Professionals
Can Do to Help
Terri Sisson, EdS
Educational AssessmentAdvisor
PAR, Inc.
Carrie Champ Morera, PsyD, NCSP, LP
Project Director
PAR, Inc.

Presentation Goals
1. Define trauma
2. Understand ACES, PCES, and effects of quarantine
3. Understand the impact of trauma and COVID-19 on students
when they return to school
4. Learn how schools can prepare for students to return
5. Discover interventions/accommodations for specific problems that
may arise
6. Considerations in trauma assessment
7. Provide PAR resources to add to your trauma toolkit
2

History of Trauma
4
? 19th Century—hysteria & dissociative phenomena
? After WWI—“shell shock syndrome”
? 1942—Lindemann and Parad—Contemporary trauma theory
? Vietnam War
? 1980 DSM-III?—PTSD was included
? Complex trauma/Developmental trauma disorder

DSM-5? Definition PTSD
? PTSD used to be under anxiety
? Now under Trauma and stressor-related disorders
? The person was exposed to:
– Death or threatened death
– Actual or threatened serious injury
– Actual or threatened sexual violence
1. Direct exposure
2. Witnessing, in person
3. Indirectly
4. Repeated exposure during professional duties
5

Complex Trauma
? Herman (1992) suggested “Complex PTSD”
diagnosis
? Courtois’ definition
– “inability to self regulate, self organize, or
draw upon relationships to regain self
integrity,” which is associated “with histories of
multiple traumatic stressors and exposure
experiences, along with severe disturbances
in primary care giving relationships.”
– Complex Trauma can lead to:
? Substance abuse
? Unemployment
? Homelessness
? Impact on all psychosocial aspects of
living
(Ringel & Brandel, 2012)
6

Types of Trauma
Acute trauma
? Generally, single event
? Sudden, unexpected
? More familiarity
? More typically covered under
PTSD definition
Complex trauma
? Chronic problems of childhood
? Interpersonal trauma
? ACE study
? Now showing long-term impact
? “Chronic” trauma
? “Developmental” trauma
7

ACEs, PCEs, & Effects of Quarantine

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)
9
THE BEGINNING
? Dr. Vincent Felitti and Dr. Robert Anda
? Started as an obesity study with Dr. Felitti
–Obesity is a protective factor
–Losing weight brought anxiety and vulnerability
? Research turned to addictive behaviors
–Also coping mechanisms for early childhood trauma

ACEs Study
10
? Drs. Felitti and Anda teamed with Kaiser Permanente
? Research officially began 1995–1997
? Baseline survey: N = 17,241
? Followed for more than 15 years
? First results published in 1998
? Followed by more than 70 other studies through 2015
? Still growing!

Abuse
? Emotional abuse
? Physical abuse
? Sexual abuse
Household challenges
? Mother treated violently
? Substance abuse in the household
? Mental illness in the household
? Parental separation or divorce
? Incarcerated household member
Neglect
? Emotional neglect
? Physical neglect
ACE Questions
(All refer to respondent’s first 18 years of life)
11

Results
? The MORE exposure to ACEs, themore
likelihood of:
– Health risk behaviors
– Disease
– Early death
? ACEs are related to seven of the leading
causes of death in the U.S.
13

Increased risk of…
14
? Smoking, alcoholism, drug use
? Depression and suicide
attempts
? Sexually transmitted disease
? Impaired job functioning
? Homelessness
? Criminal involvement
? Obesity
? Physical problems (heart, lung,
liver disease, and cancer)
? Premature death

0 ACEs vs. 4 ACEs
Risk factor % increase
Smoking 242%
Obesity 222%
Depression 357%
Illicit drug use 443%
Injected drug use 1,133%
STDs 298%
Attempted suicide 1,525%
Alcoholism 555%
15

Positive Childhood Experiences (PCEs)
16
? Have a great influence in promoting positive health
– Getting needed social and emotional support or
– Flourishing as an adult
? Positive health attributes may reduce the burden of illness
? PCEs may have lifelong consequences for mental and relational
health despite co-occurring adversities such as ACEs

PCEs
17
? Children are more likely to have better mental health, a lower risk of
depression, and healthier relationships in adulthood if they are able to:
– Talk with family members about their feelings
– Feel that their families stand by them during difficult times
– Enjoy participating in community traditions
– Feel a sense of belonging in high school
– Feel supported by friends
– Have at least two nonparent adults who take genuine interest in them
– Feel safe and protected by an adult in their home

General Effects of Quarantine
? Financial loss; socioeconomic distress
? Concern about becoming infected or transmitting the virus
? Boredom
? Frustration
? Sense of isolation
? Poor information from public health authorities
? Lack of transparency about the severity of the pandemic
? Anger and anxiety
? Avoidance of crowds
? Vigilant handwashing
(Braunack-Mayer et al., 2013; Brooks et al., 2020; Cava et al., 2017; Jeong & Song, 2016)
18

Effects of Quarantine in Children
19
? Education disrupted—Nationwide school closures in 188 countries
(91.3% of totaled enrolled learners)
https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse
? Many children are hungry—22 million children rely on school for at
least one meal. Results in stress, poor physical health, poor
mental health, academic problems, social problems
https://www.nokidhungry.org/who-we-are/hunger-facts

20
? Vulnerable to secondary impacts of the pandemic on our society
? Stress in the home as a result of job loss, economic insecurity, and
uncertainty
– Increases risk of domestic violence—1 in 15 children in U.S. exposed
and 90% of children witness it https://ncadv.org/statistics
– Social distancing could result in a rise in trauma for children as
abusers tend to isolate their victims from friends and others
– Domestic abuse is surging worldwide
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/06/world/coronavirus-domestic-
violence.html

21
? Children unable to access supports that help them cope,
including friends, activities, teachers, freedom of
movement, being in school
? Not all children had access to the same learning
opportunities while at home: lack of capacity, financial
resources, lack of/poor internet access
https://time.com/5803355/school-closures-coronavirus-
internet-access/

Psychological Effects of Quarantine
in Children
? Confusion
? Anger
? Boredom
? Stigma
? Depression
? Anxiety
? Infection fears
? Difficulty eating
? Difficulty sleeping
? Posttraumatic stress symptoms
? Trauma-related mental health disorders
? Exacerbation of existing psychiatric
symptoms
22

Impact of Trauma on the Brain
23

Brain Development
Brain area
24
Function
Memory, emotional responses
Hippocampus
Amygdala Emotional regulation, social judgment, fear
Corpus callosum
General IQ, problem solving, visual–spatial, sleep, somatic
complaints, social functioning
Balance, coordination
Cerebellum
Temporal lobe Language processing, auditoryprocessing
Frontal lobe Higher mental processes: thinking, decision making, planning

Brain
Development
Center on the
Developing Child,
Harvard University
25

Return to School:
What Can We Expect as a Result of
COVID-19 and Trauma
26

Health
A higher prevalence of:
– Obesity
– Depression, anxiety, suicide
– Sexually transmitted diseases
– Cancer
– Diabetes
– Heart disease
– Lung disease
– Premature death
27

Learning
Students may have difficulties with:
– Memory
– Attention
– Cognition
– Focusing, organizing, processing information
– Feelings of frustration and anxiety
– Executive functions
28

Learning
? Lower GPA
? 2.5 times more likely to fail a grade
? Higher rate of school absences
? Increased risk of dropout
? Decreased reading and writing ability
? Lower scores on standardized achievement
tests
29

Learning
Kids with ACE score of 3 or higher:
– 48% reported low engagement in school
– 44% had trouble staying calm and
controlled in the classroom
– 49% had difficulties finishing tasks
– 23% were diagnosed with learning
disabilities
(Murphey, D. & Moore, K., 2014)
30

Relationships/Social Skills
Students with high ACE scores have difficulties:
– Trusting others
– With boundaries
– Controlling impulsivity and being overly reactive
– Understanding and interpreting emotions
– Interpreting verbal and nonverbal communication
– With self-awareness
32

Fight
? Rapid, unexpected mood shifts
? Dysregulation
? Hyperactive, reactive, impulsive
? Aggressive
? Defiant
Flight
? Withdrawal
? Escape/running away
? Social isolation
Freeze
? Constricted emotions
? Overcompliance/denial of needs
? Perfectionism
? Dissociation
Behaviors
33

Root of Challenging
Behavior
? Pain or discomfort
? Frustration
? Anxiety
? Not understanding
? Distrust/fear
Find out WHY
34

Return to School
What Can We Expect?

Wide Range of Reactions
? No concerns
? Academic backslide
? Social challenges
? Emotional concerns
? Behavioral difficulties
36

Academic Backslide
? Varying home support
? Inconsistent teaching methods
? A lot depends on internal
student motivation!
37

Academic Backslide—Reading
FF1
38

Social Challenges
? Too clingy
? Withdrawal
? Making and keeping
friends
? Not following social
distancing guidelines

Emotional Concerns
? Grief over loss and/or events
? Increased psychological distress
? Irritability, anxiety, depression
? Pre-existing mental health
concerns may worsen
? “It’s OK not to be OK”

Behavioral Difficulties
? Nightmares
? Difficulties eating and sleeping
? Excessive focus on activities
? Regressive behaviors
? Increased irritability, anger,
aggression
? Self-harm

Prepare for Return
What Schools Do to Prepare for the Fall

Resources
? Publish resources for procedures
? Have crisis plan in order
? Plan for students who need to
stay at home
? Employee training
44

Medical Plan
45
? Follow recommendations by health departments,
WHO, CDC
? Adhere to “stay home when sick” regulations
? Monitor annual school health requirements
? Have school health staff and mental health staff
involved in planning for reopening

Mental Health Plan
? Train employees
? Plan for students who require mental health support
? Contact students who do not return to school
? Plan for school avoidance
? Publish procedures for students who report:
– Suicidal ideations
– Homicidal ideations
– Home abuse
? Address stigma
46

Interventions—General
? Show empathy and patience
? Calmly set limits
? Assure safety
? Provide age-appropriate
information
47

Promote Resiliency
48
The Four Rs
? Relationships
? Reassurance—safety and caring
? Routines—provide familiarity and structure
? Regulations (emotional)—learn how to cope
Resilience can be taught!

Promote Positive Psychology
? Positive emotions
? What do we have control over?
? Gratitude
? Savoring
? Kindness
? Self-compassion
49

Grief and Mourning
? Students will have varied
experiences
? Can mourn over things
and activities
? Listen, validate feelings
? Avoid telling your own
stories to children
50

State of Affairs in Trauma Assessment
52
? An estimated 50%-60% of children will experience some significant trauma in their lives asa
result of any of a multitude of events including accidents, physical abuse, chronic neglect,
and sexual assault, to name a few (NCTSN,2012).
? January 2020 PAR trauma market research results (N =331):
– Clinical practitioners conducted more trauma assessments than schoolpractitioners,
χ2 (1) = 49.66, p = .00, φ = –.387.
– Over half of survey respondents are already conducting evaluations that includesome
assessment of trauma; the majority include a comprehensive ratingscale.
– Trauma assessments are initiated at multiple points, but most frequently during a
psychological or psychoeducational evaluation. This is to be expected as school
psychologists complete an average of 60 psychoeducational evaluations (initialand
reevaluations) per year.

Considerations in Trauma Assessment
53
? Why trauma assessment?
– Can determine history of trauma, trauma-related symptoms, if further assessmentis
needed, types of interventions needed
? Early identification leads to more positiveoutcomes
? Universal screening
? Individual screening
? Individual assessment
? Guidance document: Guidance for Trauma Screening in Schools (written by NASPleaders
Katie Eklund and Eric Rossen in conjunction with National Center for Mental Health and
Juvenile Justice)

Assessment Domains
? Many areas are affected by trauma: memory, executive
function, behavior, depression, and anxiety
? Comprehensive assessment considers:
– Relationships and attachment
– Thinking and learning
– Self-regulation (behavioral/emotional control)
– Self-concept
– Resiliency
54

Trauma Assessment Resources:
PAR Is Here to Help
55

Books Available from PAR
56
Essentials of Trauma Informed Assessment and
Intervention in School and Community Settings
Kirby Wycoff & Bettina Franzese
https://www.parinc.com/Essentials
White paper:
Trauma Talk: An Interview with Childhood Trauma
Expert Dr. Kirby Wycoff

Books Available from PAR
57
The Neuropsychology of Stress & Trauma
Steven G. Feifer, DEd
www.parinc.com/NeuroStressTrauma
Blog:
Feifer Offers Insight Into Trauma, What Schools Can Do
to Help

Trauma Instruments
58
Rating Scales
? Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC)
? Trauma Symptom Checklist for Young Children (TSCYC)
Screeners
? Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children Screening Form
? Trauma Symptom Checklist for Young Children Screening
Form

Ages 8–16 years
Self-report
54 items, 15–20 minutes
Six clinical scales:
Anxiety
Depression
Anger
Posttraumatic Stress
Dissociation
Sexual Concerns (optional)
Available in Spanish
Trauma Instruments
59

Ages 3–12 years
Caretaker report
90 items, 20–25 min
Eight scales:
Anxiety
Depression
Anger/Aggression
Posttraumatic Stress-Intrusion
Posttraumatic Stress-Avoidance
Posttraumatic Stress-Arousal
Dissociation
Sexual Concerns
Available in Spanish
Trauma Instruments
60

Resilience/Strengths Instruments
61
? Social Emotional Assets and Resilience Scales
(SEARS)
? Risk Inventory and Strengths Evaluation (RISE)

Ages 5–18 years
Teacher, parent forms
Separate self-report forms
Ages 8–12 years
Ages 13–18 years
Four scales:
Self-Regulation
Social Competence
Empathy
Responsibility
Resilience/Strength Instruments
62

Additional PAR Assessments
Related to Impact of Trauma
63
? parinc.com/BRIEF2
? parinc.com/BERS2
? parinc.com/ChAMP
? parinc.com/PSI4
? parinc.com/PAI_A
? parinc.com/RADS2
? parinc.com/RCDS2
? parinc.com/RCMAS2
? parinc.com/Roberts2
? parinc.com/SRS2

PAR Addresses Customer Needs
? PAR’s response to the pandemic includes:
? Guidelines for telehealth practice using PAR products
? Increase in PARiConnect products including digital administration
and scoring
? Paper stimulus books converted to digital stimulus books
? Remote versions of tests

What’s Next
? Educate yourself
? Educate others
? Participate
66

NASP Resources
COVID-19 Resource Center
https://www.nasponline.org/reso
urces-and-
publications/resources-and-
podcasts/covid-19-resource-
center
Sections on:
? Return to School
? Special Education
? Crisis & Mental Health
? Families & Educators
67

CDC Resources
Many resources, primarily regarding medical information
This site is for K–12 schools:
https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-
ncov/community/schools-childcare/index.html
68

George Washington University
Resources for response to COVID-19
http://healthinschools.org/schools-and-covid-19-resources-
2/#sthash.k2cqazJZ.lGDA5eVz.dpbs
69

National Center for School Mental Health
(NCSMH)
Resources for returning to school
http://www.schoolmentalhealth.org/COVID-19/
70

Self-Care for Student Support
Professionals
10-page printable guide—can help with self-care, but also
with talking tips and guidelines for helping others
https://storage.trailstowellness.org/trails-2/covid-19-
resources/self-care-during-covid-19.pdf
71

PAR
Terri Sisson, EdS
Educational AssessmentAdvisor
tsisson@parinc.com
813.428.4920
73
Carrie Champ Morera,
PsyD, NCSP, LP
Project Director
cmorera@parinc.com

References
74
? Braunack-Mayer A., Tooher R., Collins J.E., Street J.M., & Marshall H. Understanding the school community’s response to school
closures during the H1N1 2009 influenza pandemic. BMC Public Health 2013; 13: 344.
? Brooks, S. K., Webster, R. K., Smith, L. E., Woodland, L., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N., & Rubin, G. J. The psychological impact of
quarantine and how to reduce it: rapid review of the evidence. Lancet 2020; 395:912–920.
https://www.thelancet.com/action/showPdf?pii=S0140-6736%2820%2930460-8
? Cava, M.A., Fay, K.E., Beanlands, H. J., McCay, E. A., & Wignall, R. The experience of quarantine for individuals affected by SARS
in Toronto. Public Health Nurs 2005; 22: 398–406.
? Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Kaiser Permanente. The ACE Study Survey Data [Unpublished Data]. Atlanta, Georgia:
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2016.
? Jeong H., Yim, H. W., Song, Y. J,, et al. Mental health status of people isolated due to Middle East respiratory syndrome. Epidemiol
Health 2016; 38: e2016048
? Kirzinger, A., Kearney, A., Hamel, L., & Brodie, M. (2020). KFF Health Tracking Poll – Early April 2020: The Impact of Coronavirus On
Life in America. Kaiser Family Foundation. www.kff.org
? Sprang, G., & Silman, M. Posttraumatic stress disorder in parents and youth after health-related disasters. Disaster Med Public
Health Prep 2013; 7: 105–10.
? Bethell, C., Jones, J., Gombojav, N., Linkenbach, J., & Sage, R. Positive Childhood Experiences and Adult Mental and Relational
Health in a Statewide Sample: Associations Across Adverse Childhood Experiences Levels. JAMA Pediatrics (First published online:
September 9, 2019) DOI: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2019.3007

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