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Routing in Large Scale
Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks
Ten H. Lai
Ohio State University

Two Approaches
 Traditional routing algorithms adapted to ad
hoc networks
 Geographical routing

Review of Routing
 Next-hop routing
 Source routing
 Flooding

Next-Hop Routing
destination next hop cost
x a 3
y c 5
...
?
X
c
Which neighbor (next hop)?
a
y

Source Routing
X
Which path?
destination path cost
x (a, b, c)
y
...
b
c
a

 Each node periodically broadcasts the link
states of its outgoing links to the entire
network (by flooding).
 As a node receives this information, it
updates its view of the network topology
and routing table.
Link-State Routing
5
3 4
2
1
3
4

Distance-Vector Routing
 least-cost(A,B) =
min {cost(A,x) + least-cost(x,B):
for all neighbors, x, of A}
 Neighbors exchange distance vectors
A
B
x
Destination A B C D E F G
Distance 0 10 …
C

Routing in MANETs
 Every node works as a router

Challenges
 Quick topology changes
 Scalability

Two Approaches
 Table-driven
 Like existing Internet routing protocols
 On-demand

Table-Driven Routing Protocols
 Also called proactive routing protocols
 Continuously evaluate the routes
 Attempt to maintain consistent, up-to-date routing
information
when a route is needed, it is ready immediately
 When the network topology changes
the protocol responds by propagating updates
throughout the network to maintain a consistent
view

 Also called reactive routing protocols
 Discover routes when needed by the source
node.
 Longer delay
On-Demand Routing Protocols

Early Ad Hoc Routing Protocols

DSDV: Destination Sequence
Distance Vector
 “Highly Dynamic Destination-Sequence
Distance-Vector Routing (DSDV) for
Mobile Computers”
 Charles E. Perkins & Pravin Bhagwat
 Computer Communications Review, 1994
 pp. 234-244

DSDV Overview
 DSDV = destination-sequenced distance-
vector
 Distance-vector routing
 Each entry is tagged with a sequence
number originated by the destination node.
Distance 0 10 …
Sequence #

DSDV Route Advertisement
 Each node periodically broadcasts its
distance vector.
 “broadcast” is limited to one hop.
 sequence numbers
For the sender’s entry: Sender’s new sequence
number (typically, +1)
For other entries: originally “stamped” by the
destination nodes
Distance 0 10 …
Sequence #

DSDV Route Updating Rules
 Paths with more recent seq. nos. are always
preferred.
 least-cost(A,B) =
min {cost(A,x) + least-cost(x,B):
for all neighbors, x, of A}
A
B
x
C

(Source-Initiated)
On-Demand Routing Protocols
DSR
AODV
ABR
SSR
ZRP

DSR: Dynamic Source Routing
 “Dynamic Source Routing in Ad-Hoc
Wireless Networks”
 D. B. Johnson and D. A. Maltz
 Mobile Computing, 1996
 pp. 153-181

DSR : Outline
 Source Routing
 On-demand
 Each host maintains a route cache
containing all routes it has learned.
 Two major parts:
 route discovery
 route maintenance

Route Discovery of DSR
 To send a packet, a source node first
consults its route cache.
 If there is an unexpired route, use it.
 Otherwise, initiate a route discovery.
 Route Discovery:
 Source node launches a ROUTE_REQUEST
by flooding.
 A ROUTE_REPLY is generated when
 the route request reaches the destination
 an intermediate node has an unexpired route to the
destination

Stale Route Cache Problem
 Definition:
 A cached route may become stale before it
expires.
x x

Route Maintenance of DSR
 When a node detects a link breakage, it
generates a ROUTE_ERROR packet.
 The packet traverses to the source in the
backward direction.
 The source removes all contaminated routes,
and if necessary, initiates another
ROUTE_REQUEST.
B
x x

AODV: Ad-Hoc On-Demand Distance
Vector Routing
 “Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector
Routing”
 Charles E Perkins, Elizabeth M Royer
 Proc. 2nd IEEE Wksp. Mobile Comp. Sys.
and Apps., Feb. 1999.

AODV : Outline
 Next-hop Routing (cf. DSR: source routing)
 On-demand
 Each host maintains a routing table
 Two major parts:
 route discovery (by flooding)
 route maintenance

AODV vs. DSR
 DSR: Routes are discovered and cached
 AODV: Next-hop info is stored
 “Performance Comparison of Two On-Demand
Routing Protocols for Ad Hoc Networks,”
Personal Communications, February 2001

ABR: Associativity-Based Routing
 “Associativity-Based Routing for Ad-Hoc
Mobile Networks,” C.K. Toh.
 ABR considers the stability of a link.
called the degree of association stability.
measured by the number of beacons received
from the other end of the link.
The higher degree of a link’s stability, the
lower mobility of the node at the link’s other
end.

ABR Outline
 Route Discovery:
 Same as DSR except the following.
 Each ROUTE_REQUEST packet collects the
association stability information along its path
to the destination.
 The destination node selects the best route in
terms of association stability.

 Route Reconstruction:
 On route error, a node performs a local search
in hope of repairing the path.
 If the local search fails, a ROUTE_ERROR is
reported to the source.
local
searched zone
source
destination

SSA: Signal Stability-Based Adaptive
Routing
 “Signal Stability-Based Adaptive Routing
(SSA) for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks”
 University of Maryland
 R. Dube, C. D. Rais, K.-Y. Wang & S. K.
Tripathi
 IEEE Personal Communications, ‘97

Basic Idea of SSA
 Observation:
 The ABR only considers the connectivity
stability.
 Two more metrics:
 signal stability:
the strength of signal over a link
 location stability
how fast a host moves

ZRP: Zone Routing Protocol
 The Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP) for Ad
Hoc Networks
 Cornell University
 Z.J. Haas and M.R. Pearlman
 draft-ietf-manet-zone-zrp-01.txt, 1998

ZRP Outline
 Hybrid of table-driven and on-demand!!
 Each node is associated with a zone.
 Within a zone: table-driven (proactive)
routing.
 Inter-zone: on-demand routing (similar to
DSR).

Route Discovery
 By an operation called “boardercast”:
 sending the route-request to boarder nodes

Scalability Problem in
Large-Scale Network Routing
 Internet solution

Geographic Routing
 Make use of location information
in routing

Assumptions
 Each node knows of its own location.
 outdoor positioning device:
GPS: global positioning system
accuracy: in about 5 to 50 meters
 indoor positioning device:
Infrared
short-distance radio
 The destination’s location is also known.
 How? (via a location service)

LAR: Location-Aided Routing
 Location-Aided Routing (LAR) in mobile
ad hoc networks
 Young-Bae Ko and Nitin H. Vaidya
 Texas A&M University
 Wireless Networks 6 (2000) 307–321

Basic Idea of LAR
 All packets carry sender’s current location.
 This info enables nodes to learn of each
other’s location.

Basic Idea of LAR (cont.)
 Same as DSR, except that if the destination’s
location is known, the ROUTE_REQ is only
flooded over the “route search zone.”
S
D
Route search zone
Expected zone of D

DREAM
 A Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for
Mobility (DREAM)
 S. Basagni, I. Chlamtac, V.R. Syrotiuk, B.A.
Woodward
 The University of Texas at Dallas
 Mobicom’98

Basic Idea of DREAM
 Dissemination of location information:
 Each node periodically advertises its location
(and movement information) by flooding.
 This way, nodes have knowledge of one
another’s location.

Basic Idea of DREAM
 Data Packet carries D’s and S’s locations.
 Forwarded toward only a certain direction.
S
D
Expected zone of D

GRID Routing
 “GRID: A Fully Location-Aware Routing
Protocol for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks”
 Wen-Hwa Liao, Yu-Chee Tseng, Jang-Ping
Sheu
 NCTU
 Telecommunication Systems, 2001.

Basic Idea of GRID Routing
 Partition the physical area into d x d squares
called grids.

Protocol Overview
 In each grid, a leader is elected, called
gateway.
 Responsibility of gateways:
 forward route discovery packets
 propagate data packets to neighbor grids
 maintain routes which passes the grid
 Routing is performed in a grid-by-grid
manner.

Route Search Range Options
S
D
q
(c) Fan( )
q, r
r
S
D
S
D
(a) Rectangle
(d) Two_Fan( )
q, r
(b) Bar(w)
w
S
D
q
q
r

Gateway Election in a Grid
 Any “leader election” protocol in
distributed computing can be used.
 Multiple leaders in a grid are acceptable.
 Preference in electing a gateway:
 near the physical center of the grid
likely to remain in the grid for longer time
 once elected, a gateway remains so until
leaving the grid

Taxonomy of Geographic Routing Algorithms
 Also called position-based routing
 Three major components of geographic
routing:
 Location services (dissemination of location
information)
Next topic
 Forwarding strategies
 Recovery schemes

Forwarding Strategies
 Basic greedy methods
 Directional flooding
 Geographical source routing
 Power-aware routing

Basic greedy methods
 Most Forward within Radius (C), 1984
 Nearest Forward Progress (A), 1986
 Compass Routing (B) , 1999
 Random Progress (X), 1984
 The above schemes’ 2-hop variants

Directional Flooding
 DREAM (in data packet routing)
 LAR (in route discovery)
 GRID (in route discovery)
S
D
q
(c) Fan( )
q, r
r
S
D
S
D
(a) Rectangle
(d) Two_Fan( )
q, r
(b) Bar(w)
w
S
D
q
q
r

Geographical Source Routing
 Source specifies a geographical path
 Needs an anchor path discovery protocol
 Terminode routing
 GRID

Terminode Routing
 “Self Organized Terminode Routing,” Blazevic, Giordano,
Le Boudec Cluster Computing Journal, Vol.5, No.2, April
2002
 Remote destinations:
 Use geographical routing
 Local destinations:
 Use non-geographical, proactive routing
 Similar to Zone Routing in this sense

Terminode Routing
 Remote Routing
 Anchored Geodesic Packet Forwarding
 Geodesic Packet Forwarding (if no anchored
path known)
 Friend Assisted Path Discovery
Based on Small World Graphs

Small World Graphs
 Two nodes are connected if they are
acquainted
 Sparse, small diameter

Power-Aware Routing
 “Geographical and Energy Aware Routing:
a recursive data dissemination protocol for
wireless sensor networks”
 Y. Yu, R. Govindan, D. Estrin
 UCLA

Recovery Schemes
 With any of the above forwarding strategies, packets may
get stuck (hitting a hole).
 A recovery scheme is invoked to get around the hole.
 Initiate a route discovery
 GPSR (enter the perimeter mode)
S
D
Stuck, initiating a recovery procedure

GPSR
 “GPSR: Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing
for Wireless Networks”
 Brad Karp, H.T. Kung
 Harvard University
 MobiCom 2000
 Two modes:
 Greedy (for regular forwarding)
 Perimeter (for recovery)

Perimeter Mode of GPSR
 Suppose nodes x and D are connected by a
planar graph.
 The graph divides the plane into faces.
 Line xD crosses one or more faces.
D
x

Planar Graphs
 Graphs without crossing edges.
Planar
Not

Planar Subgraph
 G: communication graph
 Relative neighborhood graph (RNG):
 Subgraph of G
 Keep edge (u, v) iff there are no nodes in the
overlapped area.
 RNG is planar
u v

Evolution
 Distance Vector, Link State
 Proactive
 On demand
 Hybrid (zone routing)
 Geographical routing
 Location Service
 Location-based Forwarding
 Recovery

Next?
 Location service
 Geographical routing without location
services
 Geocasting:
 sending a message to every node within a region.
Geocast region
Geocast
group

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