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Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay
01

Advanced Geotechnical
Engineering
Dr.-Ing. B.V.S. Viswanadham
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Powai, Mumbai- 400 076, INDIA
Website: www.civil.iitb.ac.in/~viswam
Email: viswam@civil.iitb.ac.in

Course Outline
Origin and the nature of soils as engineering materials;
Soil classification schemes; Clay mineralogy
Soil compaction; Soil-water interaction; Permeability
and Seepage
Consolidation behaviour of the soil and Methods for
accelerating consolidation of the soil.
The stress-strain-strength response of soils,
Earth retaining structures and stability analysis of
slopes
Buried structures, and
Geotechnical physical modelling

S.No. Module Contents
1. Soil composition
and soil structure
Soil formation; Types of soils and their
characteristics; Particle sizes and shapes;
their impact on engineering properties;
Soil structure; Clay mineralogy; Soil-air-
water interaction; Consistency; Soil
compaction; Concept of effective stress.

2. Permeability and
Seepage
Permeability; Seepage force and
effective stress during seepage; Laplace
equations of fluid flow for 1-D, 2-D and
3D seepage, Flow nets, Anisotropic and
non-homogeneous medium, Confined
and Unconfined seepage.

3. Compressibility
and Consolidation
Stresses in soil from surface loads;
Terzagahi’s 1-D consolidation
theory; Application in different
boundary conditions; Ramp
loading; Determination of
Coefficient of consolidation cv;
Normally and Overconsolidated
soils; Compression curves;
Secondary consolidation; Radial
consolidation; Settlement of
compressible soil layers and
Methods for accelerating
consolidation settlements.

4. Stress-strain
relationship and
Shear strength
of soils
Stress state, Mohr’s circle analysis and
Pole, Principal stress space, Stress
paths in p-q space; Mohr-coulomb
failure criteria and its limitations,
correlation with p-q space; Stress-
strain behaviour: Isotropic
compression and pressure
dependency, confined compression,
large stress compression, Definition of
failure, Interlocking concept and its
interpretations, Drainage conditions;
Triaxial behaviour, stress state and
analysis of UC, UU, CU, CD, and other
special tests, Stress paths in triaxial and
octahedral plane; Elastic modulus from
triaxial tests.

5. Earth
retaining
structures
Earth pressures; Stress changes in soil
near retaining walls; Earth pressure
theories- estimation of earth
pressures-drained and undrained
loading.
6. Stability of
Slopes
Stability analysis of a slope and
finding critical slip surface; Sudden
Draw down condition, effective stress
and total stress analysis; Seismic
displacements in marginally stable
slopes; Reliability based design of
slopes, Methods for enhancing
stability of unstable slopes.

7. Buried Structures Load on Pipes, Marston’s load
theory for rigid and flexible pipes,
Trench and Projection conditions,
minimum cover, Pipe floatation
and Liquefaction.
8. Geotechnical
Physical
Modeling
Physical modeling methods;
Application of centrifuge modeling
and its relevance to geotechnical
engineering; Centrifuge modeling
of geotechnical structures.

Geotechnical engineering is the branch of Civil
Engineering concerned with the engineering
behaviour of earth materials. Geotechnical
engineering uses principles of *Soil Mechanics and
**Rock Mechanics to investigate subsurface
conditions and materials
*Soil Mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the
study of the physical properties of soil and the behaviour of
soil mass subjected to various types of forces.
**Rock mechanics is the theoretical and applied science of
the mechanical behaviour of rock and rock masses

Examples of geotechnical engineering construction
Natural
slope
Cut
slope
Embankment
dam
Building
foundation

Supported
excavation
Tunnel
Buried
pipe
Road
embankment
Geosynthetic
Reinforced wall
Building on pile
foundation

Ash
Ash Compacted
ash
Compacted
ash
Conventional/Bioreactor
landfills
Heterogeneous
Municipal Solid
Waste

Offshore
foundation
Construction
on soft soil
Sea wall
Windmill foundation

Typical geotechnical
failures…
Landfill
failure
Expansive soil
subgrade Mud pumping
Landslide
Slope
failure Track
subsidence

Geotechnical Engineering is simply the branch of
engineering that deals with structures built of, or in,
natural soils and rocks.
This subject requires knowledge of strength and
stiffness of soils and rocks, methods of analyses of
structures and hydraulics of ground water flow.

Course Context
An understanding of the engineering
behaviour of the ground and the interaction
between the ground and any structures built in
or on the ground is essential for all Civil
Engineers.

According to Karl Terzaghi (1883-1963):
“Unfortunately, soils are made by nature and not by
man, and the products of nature are always complex…
As soon as we pass from steel and concrete to earth, the
omnipotence of theory ceases to exist. Natural soil is
never uniform. Its properties change from point to point
while our knowledge of its properties are limited to those
few spots at which the samples have been collected. In
soil mechanics the accuracy of computed results never
exceeds that of a crude estimate, and the principal
function of theory consists in teaching us what and how
to observe in the field.”

Selected References
Atkinson, J. (2007). The mechanics of soils and
foundations. Taylor & Francis, London and New York,
Second Edition.
Aysen, A. (2005). Soil Mechanics: Basic Concepts and
Engineering Applications, Taylor & Francis, London and
New York, First Edition.
Craig, R.F. (2004). Craig’s Soil Mechanics, Spon Press
Taylor & Francis, London and New York, Seventh
Edition.
Das, B.M. (2008). Advanced Soil Mechanics. Taylor &
Francis, London and New York, Third Edition.

Selected References
Fang, H-Y., and Daniels, J.L. (2006). Introductory
Geotechnical Engineering: an Environmental
Perspective. Taylor & Francis, London and New York,
First Edition.
Fredlund, D.G., and Rahardjo, H. (1993). Soil mechanics
for unsaturated soils, John Wiley & Sons, New York, First
Edition.
Holtz, R.D., and Kovacs, W.D. (1981). An introduction to
geotechnical engineering, Prentice Hall, New Jersey,
Kaniraj, S.R. (2008). The mechanics of soils and
foundations, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
Ltd., New Delhi, Tenth Reprint.

Selected References
McCarthy, D.F. (2007). Essentials of Soil Mechanics and
Foundations: Basic Geotechnics, Pearson Prentice Hall,
New Jersey, Ohio, Seventh Edition.
Parry, R.H.G. (2004). Mohr circles, stress paths and
Geotechnics. Spon Press Taylor & Francis, London and
New York, Second Edition.
Wood, D.M. (2004). Geotechnical Modelling, Spon Press
Taylor & Francis, London and New York, First Edition.

• The rocks that form the earth’s surface are
classified as to origin as:
• - Igneous
• - Sedimentary
• - Metamorphic
Rock: The source of soils
 Most of the nonroganic materials that are identified
as soil originated from rock as the parent material.

Igneous Rocks
• are those formed directly from the molten state of magma.
 The molten magma that cooled rapidly at or near earths surface are called
extrusive or volcanic type rocks. Eg. Basalts, Rhyolites and Andesites.
 If the molten rock cools very slowly, the different materials segregate into
large crystals forming a coarse-grained or granular structure (Trapped at
deeper depths)
Intrusive or plutonic type, Eg. Granite (which consists of quartz and
feldspar), Syerites, and Gabbros
 Because of high silica content these rocks are classified as ACIDIC 
Decomposes to predominantly sandy or gravel with little clay. (Good construction
materials!)
 Rocks whose minerals contain Fe, Mg, Ca or Na but little silica such as the
Gabbros, Diabases, Basalts are classified as BASIC

Igneous Rocks
When the solution of magma is cooled very very rapidly the
minerals do not separate into crystals but solidify as amorphous
vitreous rock.
Such as, Volcanic Scoria, Pumice, and Obsidan
 Rock types that are intermediate between acidic and basic
include the Trachytes, Diorites, and Andesites
Easily break down into the fine-textured
soils due to their mineral components.
 The clay portion of fine-textures soil is the result of primary
rock minerals decomposing to form secondary minerals.
 Not small fragments of the parent rock minerals
 The properties and behaviour of clay soils are different from
those of gravel, sand, and silt soils.

Sedimentary Rocks
are formed from accumulated deposits of soil particles
or remains of certain organisms that have become
hardened by pressure or cemented by minerals.
Cementing materials such as silica, Calcium
Carbonate, iron oxides are abundant
For E.g., Limestones, *Dolomites, Sandstone, Shale,
Conglomerate and Breccia
*Dolomite is referred to both the rock forming
mineral CaMg(CO3)2 and sedimentary rock
(recent name is Dolostone)

Sedimentary rocks
Shales are predominantly formed from deposited
clay and silt particles.
- The degree of hardness = f ( the type of minerals, the bonding
that developed, and the presence of foreign materials).
- The hardness is mainly due to external pressures and particle
bonds, not due to cementing minerals.
- When exposed to environment (water or air), shales tend to
expand or delaminate (the layers separate)
- Break down of shale  fragments of varying sizes  Clay
particle sizes

Formation
of sinkholes
(Modified after:
http://geoservicesltd.com/Limestone
sinkholes.html)
Sedimentary rocks
 Limestone is predominantly crystalline CaCO3
(Calcite) formed under water.
 Limestone-Dolomite is referenced as Karst or
Karstic terrain.
Sinkholes/cavities can
result due to solvable
nature with ingredients
present in ground water. 
Weathering of limestones
 predominantly finer size
particles.

• Metamorphic Rocks [Source: IR or SR]
- results when any type of existing rock is
subject to metamorphism, the change
brought about by combinations of heat,
pressure and plastic flow so that the original
rock structure and mineral composition are
changed.
[ Plastic flow – slow viscous movement and
rearrangement within the rock mass due to external
forces]
Limestone  MARBLE; Shale SLATE or PHYLLITE;
Granite   GNEISS; Sandstone QUARTZITE

Metamorphic Rocks
Gneiss is a foliated rock with distinctive banding
that results from the metamorphosis of granite.
 Distinction between Gneisses and Schists is not
always clear
 Upon weathering Gneiss and Schist decompose to
form silt-sand mixtures with mica.
 Soils from phyllites are more clayey and
decomposition of quartzite produces sands and
gravels.

Typical example of metamorphism

ROCKS
(IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY, METAMORPHIC)
WEATHERING
(PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL)
TRANSPORTED
BOULDERS, GRAVEL, SAND, SILT AND CLAY
SOIL

• Rocks whose chief mineral is quartz minerals
with high silica content, decomposes to
predominantly sandy or gravelly soil with little
clay. [Acidic rocks are light-coloured]
• Basic rocks decompose to the fine-textured silt
and clay soils.
- The clays are not small fragments of the original
materials that existed in the parent rock [ result of
primary rock minerals decomposing to form
secondary minerals]

Major soil types based on particle size
The major engineering categories of soil are gravel,
sand, silt and clay
 Gravel and sands are considered coarse-grained
soils (with large bulk particle sizes)
 Silt (very tiny particles of disintegrated rock) and clay particles
are considered fine-grained soils because of their small particle
sizes.
- Clay soil is plastic (if it can be remolded without
cracking/breaking) over a range of water content and silt soil
possesses little or no plasticity.
 Particles larger than gravel are called cobbles or
boulders

• Soils can be grouped into two broad categories
(depending on the method of deposition):
 Residual – Formed from weathering of rock
and remain at the location of their origin.
[a material which may possess little mineralogical
resemblance to the parent rock]
 Transported – those materials that have been
moved from their place of origin
- by agencies like, gravity, water, glaciers, or
man- either singularly or in combination

• Characteristics of Residual soils are
dependent on:
 Climatic conditions - humidity, temp.,
rainfall)
 Natural drainage pattern
 Form and extent of vegetation cover
[A warm and humid climate is favourable to the
formation of residual soils and nature of residual soil
differs markedly at different depths below ground
surface and constantly changes with time]
- Soil deposits in Deccan Plateau

• Transported Soils are classified according to the
transporting agency and method of deposition:
 Alluvial – transported in running water [rivers]
 Lacustrine – deposited in quiet lakes
 Marine – deposited in sea water
 Aeolin – transported by wind
 Glacial – by ice [Glaciation –
massive moving sheets of ice
 Colluvial – deposited through action of landslide
and slope wash

Examples of Transported soils:
 LOESS – Wind blown deposit with very uniform fine
silt particles (possesses slight cementation
properties)
– Formed in Arid and Semi-Arid regions
with yellowish light brown colour
 Tuff – Fine-grained slightly cemented volcanic
ash [by wind/water]
 Glacial till – Heterogeneous mixture of boulders,
gravel, sand, silt and clay [Hilly regions]

Examples of Transported soils:
 Varved Clay – Alternate layers of silt and clay
deposited in fresh water glacial lakes.
- One band of silt and clay deposited each
year [each layer is approx. 10 mm thk.]
 Marl – Very fine grained soil of marine origin
[impermeable, greenish colour]
 Peat – A highly organic soil consisting almost
entirely of vegetable matter in varying stages
of decomposition, Fibrous, brown to black in
colour and highly compressible

Major soil deposits:
f( Ambience, Geography and Topography)
 Expansive – High shrink-swell characteristics
(attributed to the mineral)
Colour- Black (presence of Fe, Mg and Ti)
 Marine – Very soft and may contain organic matter
 Laterite – Red in colour due to Fe2O3 (Laterization-
Leaching of Silica – due to intense chemical
weathering)
 Alluvial – Alternate layers of Sand, Silt and Clay
 Desert – Wind blown, Uniformly graded
 Glacial – Boulder clay (all ranges of particle sizes)

Distribution of predominant Soil
deposits In India
Marine soil
deposits
Expansive
soil deposits
Desert soils

Constituents of the soil mass
-Formation of soils from the weathering of the
parent rock
-Wide range of sizes of soil solids
Behaviour of soil mass under stress is a function
of material properties, such as:
(i) size and shape of grains, (ii) gradation, (iii)
mineralogical composition, (iv) arrangement of grain, (v)
inter-particle forces, etc.)
 Material properties  f(constituents of the soil mass)

Soil is a particulate material,
which means that a soil mass consists of accumulation of
individual particles that are bonded together by
mechanical or attractive means, though not strongly as for
rock.
- Spaces in between solid particles  Voids or pore space
 In soil (in most rock), voids exist between particles,
and voids may be filled with a liquid, usually water or
gas, usually air.

Water surrounding
particles and at points
of contact between
particles, and filling
small void spaces
Air in irregular spaces
between soil particles
Actual soil bulk consisting of soil particles, water
and air

 Soil is inherently multiphase material
(Generally consists of three phases)
- Solid phase
- Liquid phase
- Gaseous phase
It can also be TWO PHASE material:
- With solid + Gaseous (DRY STATE)
- With solid + Liquid (SATURATED STATE)

3 – Phase system
SOLIDS
LIQUID
GAS
Idealization

Solid phase consists of:
Primary rock forming minerals (Size > 2µm, Poor
Reactivity, Prone to disintegration)
Clay minerals (Basic materials that form the soil
mass, Size < 2µm, High Reactivity)
 Cementing material (Carbonates)
Organic matter (High water absorption,
Compressible, unstable)

Liquid phase consists of:
WATER DISSOLVED SALTS
Pure
water
Polluted
water
Water
soluble
Water
insoluble
Water soluble- Chlorides, Sulphates, Bicarbonates
(Not capable of binding solid grains)

Gaseous phase consists of:
2 –phase system; Dry soil
AIR GASES
Solids
Air
Solids
Water
2 –phase system; Saturated soil

3 – Phase system
Wa = 0
Weight
=
SOLIDS
WATER
AIR
Volume
Va
Vw
Vs
VV
Ww
Ws
V = VS+VW+Va W = WS + WW
Partially Saturated Soil

Self evaluation
i) List the soil types included in coarse-grain
category and the fine-grain category
ii) Why there is a difference in behaviour of natural
clays and other soil types such as sands and silts?
iii) What does the term plastic mean in relation to
clay soils?
iv) What are laterites (or lateritic soils) and why are
such soils considered in the category of requiring
special consideration on construction projects?
v) From any borehole data in your location, list soil
type and rock types

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