�ݺ�ߣ

Mcqs
• penicillin was discovered in the 1940s.
• bioethics, a term that ﬁrst appeared in the literature in
1969.
• The Nuremberg trials in 1946-1947 Nuremberg code
1949 ( 10 guidelines)
• Tuskegee syphilis research from 1932 -1972 by US.
• 1950s thailadome was approved as sedative in Europe.
• Helsinki declaration 1964.
• Belmont report 1979.
• CIOMS in late 1970s.
• National Research Act became law in 1974.
• Nazi doctors who conducted heinous medical
experiments during World War II began.

Belmont Report
• A commission was created to outline three
basic principles
1. Respect for persons,
2. Beneﬁcence
3. Justice
.

Principles of Biomedical Ethics(book)
• In 2013 Beauchamp and Childress published
the first edition of their book Principles of
Biomedical Ethics, which featured 4 bioethical
principles:
1. autonomy
2. nonmaleficence
3. beneficence
4. justice.

Autonomy
Autonomy is the freedom and ability to act in a self
determined manner.
In the domain of health care, respecting a patient’s autonomy
includes;
• obtaining informed consent for treatment.
• facilitating and supporting patients’ choices regarding
treatment options.
• allowing patients to refuse treatments.
• disclosing comprehensive.
• truthful information, diagnoses, and treatment options to
patients.
• maintaining privacy and conﬁdentiality.

• Restrictions on an individual’s autonomy may
occur in cases when a person presents a
potential threat for harming others, such as
exposing other people to communicable
diseases or committing acts of violence.
• Munhall (2012) used the word autonomy
(auto-no-my) as an example.
• Being willing and able to say no is part of
exercising one’s autonomy.

Informed Consent
• At the heart of informed consent is respecting
a person’s autonomy to make personal choices.
• Dempski (2009) presented three basic
elements that are necessary for informed
consent to occur:
1. Receipt of information,
2. Consent for the treatment must be voluntary,
3. Persons must be competent.

Elements of Informed Consent
Beauchamp and Childress (2013) outlined informed
consent according to seven elements.
• Threshold elements (preconditions)
1. Competence (to understand and decide)
2. Voluntariness (in deciding)
• Information elements
3. Disclosure (of material information)
4. Recommendation (of a plan)
5. Understanding (of 3 and 4)
• Consent elements
6. Decision (in favor of a plan)
7. Authorization (of the chosen plan)

Intentional Nondisclosure
• The Institute of Medicine (IOM 2000) began a project
to analyze medical errors and try to reduce them.
• One outcome of the project is the book To Err Is
Human.
• Other more legally and ethically controversial
circumstances of intentionally not disclosing relevant
information to a patient involve three circumstances.
• The ﬁrst circumstance falls under therapeutic privilege.
• The second relates to therapeutically using placebos.
• The third involves withholding information from
research subjects to protect the integrity of the research.

Patient Self-Determination Act
• (PSDA), passed by the U.S. Congress in 1990,
is the ﬁrst federal statute designed to facilitate
a patient’s autonomy.
• One of the underlying aims of the PSDA is to
increase meaningful dialogue about patients’
rights to make autonomous choices about
receiving or not receiving health care.

The Health Insurance Portability and
Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA)
Privacy and Security Rules
• It is a federal regulation designed to protect
people from disclosure of their personal health
information other than for the provision of
health care.

Nonmaleficence
• It is the maxim or norm that “one ought not to
inﬂict evil or harm”.
• Whereas beneﬁcence includes the following
three norms:
• one ought to prevent evil or harm.
• one ought to remove evil or harm.
• one ought to do or promote good.
• Negligence is “the absence of due care”.

Slippery slope arguments
• Often a slippery slope argument is a metaphor
used as a “beware the Ides of March” warning
with no justiﬁcation or formal, logical evidence to
back it up.
• Old saying that when people are given an inch,
they eventually may take a mile.
• One example of a slippery slope debate occurred
with the legalization of physician-assisted suicide
(PAS), such as the acts legalized by the Oregon
Death with Dignity Act October 1997.

Beneficence
• The principle of beneﬁcence consists of
performing deeds of “mercy, kindness,
friendship, charity and the like”.
• Rules of Beneficence
1. Protect and defend the rights of others.
2. Prevent harm from occurring to others.
3. Remove conditions that will cause harm to
others.
4. Help persons with disabilities.
5. Rescue persons in danger.

Paternalism
• The deliberate overriding of a patient’s
opportunity to exercise autonomy because of a
perceived obligation of beneﬁcence is called
paternalism.
• The word reﬂects its roots in fatherly or male
(paternal) hierarchical relationships, governance,
and care.
• If a nurse avoids telling a patient that her blood
pressure is elevated because the nurse believes
this information will upset the patient and
consequently further elevate her blood pressure,
this is an example of paternalism.

Types of Paternalism
• Soft paternalism protect persons from their
own non-voluntary conduct.
• Hard paternalism Interventions intended to
prevent or mitigate harm to or to benefit a
person, despite the fact that the person’s risky
choices and actions are informed, voluntary,
and autonomous.

Justice
• Justice, as a principle in healthcare ethics,
refers to fairness, treating people equally and
without prejudice, and the equitable
distribution of beneﬁts and burdens including
assuring fairness in biomedical research.

Social Justice
• Social justice represents the position that
beneﬁts and burdens should be distributed
fairly among members of a society, or ideally
that all people in a society should have the
same rights, beneﬁts, and opportunities.
• Distributive justice refers to the fair
allocation of resources.

Rawls principles of equality and justice
In his book A Theory of Justice, John Rawls
(1971) proposed that fairness and equality be
evaluated under a veil of ignorance.
1. everyone should be given equal liberty
regardless of their adversities.
2. differences among people should be
recognized by making sure the least
advantage people are given opportunities for
improvement.

1974 Robert Nozick
• In 1974 Robert Nozick presented the idea of an
entitlement system in his book Anarchy, State,
and Utopia. He proposed that individuals should
be entitled to health care and the beneﬁts of
insurance only if they are able to pay for these
beneﬁts.
• A system of libertarianism, meaning justice and
fairness are based on rewarding only those people
who contribute to the system in proportion to their
contributions.

Norman Daniels (1985)
• In his book Just Health Care, Norman
Daniels (1985) used the basis of Rawls’s
concept of justice and suggested a liberty
principle.
• Daniels advocated national healthcare reform
and proposed that every person should have
equal access to health care and reasonable
access to healthcare services.

Patient Protection and Aﬀordable Care
Act
• Signed into law by President Obama on
March 23, 2010, the Affordable Care Act
(ACA.) is intended to enact comprehensive
healthcare reform in the US, including
improving quality and lowering healthcare
costs, providing greater access to health care,
and providing new consumer protections.

Professional–Patient Relationships
• If healthcare professionals view life as a web
of interrelationships, all their relationships
potentially can affect the well-being of
patients.

Unavoidable Trust
• This unavoidable trust creates an
asymmetrical, or uneven, power structure in
relationships between professionals and
patients, and the patients’ families (Zaner,
1991).
• According to Zaner, healthcare professionals
must promise “not only to take care of, but to
care for the patient and family—to be candid,
sensitive, attentive, and never to abandon
them”

Human Dignity
• Shotton and Seedhouse (1998) said the term
dignity has been used in vague ways.
• They characterized dignity as persons being in a
position to use their capabilities and proposed that
a person has dignity “if he or she is in a situation
where his or her capabilities can be effectively
applied”.
• According to MacIntyre (1999), people generally
progress from a point of vulnerability in infancy
to achieving varying levels of independent,
practical reasoning as they mature.

• Taking a “there but for the grace of God go I”
stance may prompt nurses to develop what
MacIntyre called the virtues of acknowledged
dependence. These virtues include;
• Just generosity a form of giving generously
without keeping score of who gives or receives
the most
• Misericordia is a Latin word that signiﬁes
giving based on urgent need without prejudice
• Truthfulness involves not being deceptive.

Moral Suﬀering
• Suffering in a moral sense has similarities to
the Buddhist concept of dukkha, a Sanskrit
word translated as suffering.
• Dukkha “includes the idea that life is
impermanent and is experienced as
unsatisfactory and imperfect”.
• The Buddha was reported to have said,
“Because the world is sick, I am sick. Because
people suffer, I have to suffer”.
• Thich Nhat Hanh (1998) wisely stated,
“without suffering, you cannot grow”.

Ethical Dilemmas
• A situation in which an individual is compelled to
choose between two actions that will affect the
welfare of a sentient being, and both actions are
reasonably justiﬁed as being good, one action
must be chosen.
• Kidder (1995) described the heart of an ethical
dilemma as “the ethics of right versus right”.
• He proposed that people generally can judge
wrong choices according to three criteria:
violation of the law, departure from the truth, and
deviation from moral rectitude.

Heinz dilemma used by Lawrence
Kohlberg in his research.
• The story is about Heinz, whose wife is dying of
cancer.
• She needs a particular drug to save her life.
• The pharmacist who makes the drug charges much
more than it costs him to make it.
• He asks the pharmacist to sell him the drug at a lower
cost, but the pharmacist refuses.
• Finally, Heinz robs the pharmacy to obtain the drug.
• The questionis whether or not Heinz should have done
this. Did Heinz face a dilemma?
• Weston discussed the Heinz dilemma with his students,
and they generated some very creative ways of
approaching the problem that did not involve robbing
the pharmacy.

Critical Thinking
• In modern times, the American philosopher
John Dewey (1859–1952) is considered one of
the early proponents of critical thinking.
• In his book How We Think, Dewey
(1910/1997) summarized reﬂective thought as
active, persistent, and careful consideration of
any belief or supposed form of knowledge in
light of the grounds that support it.

• Paul and Elder (2006), directors of the Foundation
for Critical Thinking, deﬁned critical thinking as
“the art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with
a view to improving it”.
• The process of critical thinking is summarized by
Paul and Elder (2006) as “self-directed, self-
disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective
thinking [that] requires rigorous standards of
excellence and mindful command of their use”
• Fisher (2001) described the basic way to develop
critical thinking skills as simply “thinking about
one’s thinking”.

Moral Imagination
• Dewey (1934) stated imagination “ is a way of
seeing and feeling things as they compose an
integral whole”.
• Moral imagination is moral decision making
through reﬂection involving “empathetic
projection” and “creatively tapping a
situation’s possibilities”.

• . Although Aristotle taught that habit is the
way people cultivate moral virtues, Dewey
(1922/1988) cautioned that mindless habits can
be “blinders that conﬁne the eyes of mind to
the road ahead”.
• Dewey proposed that habit should be
combined with intellectual impulse.

The High, Hard Ground and the
Swampy Low Ground

The Four Topics Approach to Ethical
Decision Making

�ݺ�ߣ

BIOETHICS.pptx

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to BIOETHICS.pptx (20)

Recently uploaded (20)

BIOETHICS.pptx