Chemistry
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Hard water forms soap scum instead of lather due to calcium and magnesium ions destroying the surfactant properties of soap. There are two types of water hardness: temporary hardness caused by bicarbonates that can be removed by boiling, and permanent hardness caused by sulphates that require a water softener to remove.
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2. The lime-soda process uses lime and soda ash to precipitate calcium and magnesium ions from water.
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1. There are two types of hardness - temporary hardness caused by calcium and magnesium bicarbonates which can be removed by boiling, and permanent hardness caused by other salts which requires treatment.
2. Hard water causes scale and sludge formation in boilers, increasing fuel costs and risk of explosions.
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Where do they come from?
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- Process
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Ni soap decomposition
Nickel dissolution in the presence of hydrogen
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Effect of pore dimensions in fatty acid hardening
Effect of premixing time on catalyst activity
Effects of catalyst dissolution summarized:
Reducing Ni soaps
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Precious metal catalyst cycle
Alternative catalyst for FA hydrogenation (ii)
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- Uses
- Process
Fatty Ester Hydrogenolysis
Fixed Bed Hydrogenolysis
Slurry Phase Hydrogenolysis
Fatty OH polishing
Fatty Methyl Esters
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Advantages of ME vs FA as a feedstock
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REFERENCE:
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The document describes an experiment to determine the percentage of fatty material in different soap samples. Key details:
- The aim is to find and calculate the percentage of fatty material in different soap samples through a procedure involving weighing samples before and after extraction of fatty material using HCl and ether.
- Materials needed include test tubes, beakers, various soaps, a Bunsen burner, HCl acid, filter paper, a weighing machine, and a separating flask.
- Through the procedure, the fatty material is extracted from each soap sample and weighed. The percentage of fatty material is then calculated for each sample.
- Based on the results, Lux International soap is concluded to have the highest percentage of fatty materialLab report lipid
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The document summarizes an experiment on determining the saponification number of corn and palm oil. The experiment involves hydrolyzing the oils with potassium hydroxide (KOH) and titrating the leftover KOH with hydrochloric acid (HCl). The saponification number, which indicates the chain length of fatty acids in the oils, is higher for corn oil, meaning it has shorter fatty acid chains than palm oil. However, the results of this experiment showed the opposite trend, likely due to errors in the experimental procedure.Soaps and detergents
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We now delve a little deeper into the supply chain, identifying the various processes along the supply chain. Included are examples of product applications with a key that describes the various products and processes e.g Fractionation, Hydrogenation, distillation, IE Palm Stearin, RBD Palm Kernel Stearin, Emulsifier etc.
The product examples we provide do not cover all individual products that palm or palm kernel oil are used in. All main refinery processes are covered; however further blending and manufacturing processes do take place passed what is shown in this graphic.
Processes
- Palm Oil Mill Process
- Crushing
- Refining RBD
- Fractionation
- Interesterification
- Hydrogenation
- Glycerolysis
- Distillation
Products
- RBD Palm Oil
- RBD Palm Olein
- RBD Palm Stearin
- Double Olein (or Super Olein)
- Palm Mid Fraction
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- Mid Stearin
- Palm Kernel Expeller
- RBD Palm Kernel Oil
- RBD Palm Kernel Olein
- RBD Palm Kernel Stearin
- Palm Fatty Acid Distillate (PFAD)
- Palm Kernel Fatty Acid Distillates (PKFAD)
- Oleochemicals
- Hydrogenated Palm Kernel Oil (HPKO)
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The document discusses hard water and its causes. Hard water is water that does not easily form soap lathers, due to the presence of calcium and magnesium ions that react with soap. There are two types of hardness: temporary hardness caused by calcium and magnesium bicarbonates that can be removed by boiling, and permanent hardness caused by calcium and magnesium chlorides and sulfates that cannot be removed by boiling. Methods for softening hard water include using ion exchange resins that replace calcium and magnesium ions with sodium ions.EC-PPT.pptx
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1. The document discusses three external water softening processes: lime-soda process, zeolite process, and ion exchange process.
2. The lime-soda process uses lime and soda ash to precipitate calcium and magnesium ions from water. The zeolite process uses naturally occurring minerals to exchange sodium ions for calcium and magnesium ions. The ion exchange process uses cation and anion exchange resins to remove ions from water.
3. Each process has advantages like reducing hardness and corrosion but also limitations such as producing waste sludge or requiring pre-treatment of the raw water.EC-PPT-22D21A6612.pptx
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1. The document discusses various external water softening processes including lime-soda, zeolite, and ion exchange processes.
2. The lime-soda process uses lime and soda ash to precipitate calcium and magnesium ions from water.
3. The zeolite process involves exchanging sodium ions in zeolite minerals with calcium and magnesium ions in hard water.
4. Ion exchange uses cation and anion exchange resins to remove ions from water and produce deionized water with hardness of only 2 ppm.water-and-its-treatment.ppt
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1. There are two types of hardness - temporary hardness caused by calcium and magnesium bicarbonates which can be removed by boiling, and permanent hardness caused by other salts which requires treatment.
2. Hard water causes scale and sludge formation in boilers, increasing fuel costs and risk of explosions.
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This document discusses hardness in water. It defines hard water as water containing dissolved minerals like calcium and magnesium. Hard water does not lather well with soap and can cause scale buildup. There are two types of hardness: temporary, caused by bicarbonates which can be removed by boiling; and permanent, caused by chlorides and sulfates which require chemical treatment. Methods to soften hard water discussed include ion exchange, zeolite processes, and reverse osmosis. The document covers sources of water, types of impurities, and treatment methods for domestic water purposes.water and its treatment
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Water by aluru jaideep reddyAluru Jaideep Reddy
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Water is essential for humans, animals and plants. It is used for drinking, cooking, bathing and washing. Water also plays an important role in industries. Hardness in water is caused by dissolved salts of calcium, magnesium and other metals. This prevents soap from lathering easily. Hardness can be classified as temporary, caused by bicarbonates, or permanent, caused by chlorides and sulfates. The EDTA method is commonly used to determine water hardness by forming complexes with calcium and magnesium ions. Scale and sludge formation in boilers occurs when salt concentrations exceed solubility limits during steam production, potentially weakening boiler walls.Water
Waterdarpoly2000
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Hard water contains dissolved salts like calcium and magnesium that cause soap to produce less lather. The hardness can be temporary or permanent depending on the type of salts. Common methods to soften hard water include distillation, soda process, and permutit process which use chemicals or ion exchange to remove calcium and magnesium ions. Hardness is measured using a titration with EDTA and an indicator and is expressed in units of milliequivalents per liter which corresponds to parts per million of calcium carbonate.Water and Its Industrial Applications
Water and Its Industrial ApplicationsCHIRAGRAI20
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The document summarizes the process of water softening. It involves chemically converting hardness-causing calcium and magnesium salts in water into insoluble compounds using milk of lime and soda. Lime is added to precipitate temporary hardness as calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide. Soda is added to precipitate permanent hardness as calcium carbonate. The amounts of lime and soda required are calculated based on the types and amounts of hardness present. If the purity of lime or soda is less than 100%, corrections must be made to calculate the actual amounts needed. The precipitates formed are then filtered out, removing hardness from the water.Environmental water, solid ,pollution, air
Environmental water, solid ,pollution, air18CEB007MohdAnas
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Water is a universal solvent and essential for engineering applications. It exists as solid, liquid, and gas on Earth and moves through the water cycle. Surface water sources include rain, rivers, lakes, and seas, while underground sources are springs and wells. Impurities in water can be dissolved, suspended, or biological. Water treatment removes impurities to make water suitable for industrial and domestic uses. Hard water reduces soap efficiency and causes scale in boilers. Internal and external water treatments are used to control scale and corrosion in boilers.Water treatment and Analysis
Water treatment and AnalysisAzmir Latif Beg
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Water treatment procedure also vary depending upon its use. However, overall picture of water treatment, irrespective of end use shall be considered. An endeavor is made to comprehend the basic chemistry involved in water treatment process. The important stages involved in treatment are as follows: coagulation or flocculation; sedimentation; filtration – slow sand, rapid sand filtration; disinfection – including chlorination and ozonolysis; removal of iron and manganese; softening by lime-soda ash process or deionization method; scale and corrosion control; taste and odor removal; prophylaxiation treatment, i.e., fluoridisation; and specialized treatment for a specific purpose.carbonates.pdf
carbonates.pdfMathandScienced
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Carbonates are usually insoluble except for alkali metals. Carbonates decompose when heated to form oxides and carbon dioxide. Calcium carbonate (limestone) decomposes to form calcium oxide (lime) and carbon dioxide. All carbonates react with acids to form salts, water and carbon dioxide. Limestone is used to manufacture cement, iron, and lime. Lime is made by heating limestone to form calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. Slaked lime is formed when water is added to calcium oxide and is used to neutralize acidic soils and wastes. Carbon dioxide turns lime water milky by forming insoluble calcium carbonate.04a_HARD+WATER.pdf
04a_HARD+WATER.pdfsachin829292
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The document discusses hard water and soft water. Hard water contains high levels of calcium and magnesium ions which can cause scaling. There are two types of hardness: permanent hardness caused by calcium/magnesium sulfates/chlorides and temporary hardness caused by calcium and bicarbonate ions. Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling. Softening hard water involves precipitating calcium ions using lime-soda or ion exchange processes. Soft water is better for soap lather but risks adding more sodium and dissolving metals from pipes.Hardness of water
Hardness of waterMussaOmary3
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Hard water is caused by dissolved calcium and magnesium compounds from sources like limestone and chalk rocks. It does not lather easily with soap. There are two types of hardness: temporary, caused by calcium hydrogen carbonate and removed by boiling; and permanent, caused by other compounds and not removed by boiling. Permanent hardness can be removed through distillation, adding sodium carbonate, or using ion exchangers. Hard water has advantages like taste and providing calcium, but disadvantages like requiring more soap and causing scaling. Water treatment plants filter, precipitate minerals, filter through sand, chlorinate, and sometimes fluoridate water to make it safe to drink.More from Stuti Majmudar (7)
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This document provides information about the Narmada Bachao Andolan movement. It summarizes that the movement was started in 1985 against the construction of large dams on the Narmada River, including the Sardar Sarovar Dam, which would displace over 250,000 people. Led by activist Medha Patkar, the Narmada Bachao Andolan mobilized local people, farmers, environmentalists and human rights activists to peacefully protest the dams. The movement gained international support and pressured the World Bank to withdraw funding for the dam projects.Physics
PhysicsStuti Majmudar
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We need to save water through conservation to ensure future generations have access to clean water. Conserving water means using it wisely and protecting its purity so we can continue enjoying the benefits of this vital resource. Rainwater harvesting provides an independent water source during droughts or restrictions, helps prevent flooding, replenishes groundwater levels to sustain well yields, and reduces water salinity and iron content to improve quality.Economics
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Groundwater is a major source of drinking water in India. Pumping water out of the ground faster than it can be replenished causes the volume of groundwater to decrease in many areas. This groundwater depletion leads to negative effects such as the drying up of wells, reduction of water in streams and lakes, deterioration of water quality, increased pumping costs, and land subsidence.ppt on water 
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The document summarizes popular struggles related to water in Bolivia and Sudan. In Bolivia, mass protests known as the Cochabamba Water War erupted in 2000 in response to the privatization of the municipal water supply and large rate increases imposed by the private company. After months of demonstrations and clashes with police, the government reversed the privatization. In Sudan, water conflicts stem from northern Arab expansion seeking new farmland and resources in the south. One conflict involved the Jonglei Canal project to drain the Sudd Swamps, which threatened local tribes and was attacked by the Sudan People's Liberation Army, forcing suspension of the project in 1984. Both examples show popular resistance to changes in water access and use of important waterPPT
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Rainwater harvesting has been practiced for centuries around the world to collect and store rainwater for irrigation and drinking. It involves collecting rainwater, transporting it, filtering it, and storing it for groundwater recharge or other uses. Popular struggles have occurred related to water privatization and large dam projects that displaced communities or restricted access to water sources. Sustainable development aims to meet current needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet their own needs, and groundwater can be preserved by reducing chemical and waste pollution, conserving water usage, and practicing reuse and recycling.Geography
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Rainwater harvesting has a long history around the world. It involves collecting rainwater and storing it for later use before it reaches aquifers. It has been practiced as far back as the 3rd century BC in parts of India and Pakistan. It remains an important source of water for irrigation and other purposes. Rainwater harvesting systems typically involve three steps - collection, filtration, and storage. Water conservation aims to ensure sustainable access to water resources for current and future generations. It is important for both environmental and social reasons.Chemistry
- 2. E F F E C T S With hard water, soap solutions form a white precipitate (soap scum) instead of producing lather, because the 2+ ions destroy the surfactant properties of the soap by forming a solid precipitate (the soap scum). A major component of such scum is calcium stearate, which arises from sodium stearate, the main component of soap: 2 C17H35COO- + Ca2+ → (C17H35COO)2Ca
- 3. TYPES OF HARDNESS TEMPORARY HARDNESS PERMANENT HARDNESS Caused by the presence of dissolved bicarbonate chemicals. When dissolved these minerals yield calcium and magnesium cat ions and carbonate and bicarbonate anions . It can be removed by either boiling the water or by addition of lime through the softening process. Caused by the presence of calcium sulphate and magnesium sulphate which do not precipitate out while boiling. Ions causing permanent hardness can be removed by using a water softener or Ion exchange column.