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Chloroplat DNA

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Head Department of Botany Govt Degree College Mahabubaba
Head Department of Botany Govt Degree College Mahabubaba

Chloroplast DNA

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Chloroplast DNA Presented By Dr. T,Ugandhar Asst. Prof of Botany GDC MAHABUBABAD
Chloroplat DNA
Chloroplat DNA
Chloroplat DNA
Structural organization of chloroplast is signified by the presence of double membrane envelope and soluble phase, the stroma, and an internal membrane system, the thylakoids. Both thylakoid and stromal systems are committed for light reaction and carbon dioxide fixation respectively. Chloroplast attains diversified shapes. Higher plants exhibit lens shaped chloroplasts in their cytosol. The size measures anywhere between 5 and 10 pm long Chloroplast
Chloroplat DNA
Chloroplat DNA
Chloroplast 牋牘牋迦 牋萎牋牘牋迦 牋伍牋牘 牋牘牋牘牋 牋牋逗旭牋迦鮎牋 牋伍牋伍哀 牋牘牋朽牋牘牋 牋牘牘 牋 牋牋牘牋朽芦牋牘 牋牋萎或牋牘 牋牘牋萎或牋牘 牋牘牋, 牋伍牋牘牘牘 牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牘 牋牋牋む旭牋牋 牋牘牘 牋 牋朽牋牋朽牋伍哀, 牋牘牋迦牋牋逗亜牘牘 牋牋牋逗牘牋 牋牘牋朽圧牋萎芦 牋牘牋萎或牋む牋牋牋÷牋牘牋. 牋牘牋迦鮎牋牘牋迦渥牋牋逗亜牘 牋牋萎或牋牘 牋伍牋牘牘牘 牋牋迦 牋朽牋牋朽牋伍哀牋迦 牋朽牋萎牋伍牋 牋牘牋迦牋む或 牋伍葵牋牋牘牋牘 牋牋萎或牋牘 牋牘牋迦旭牋牋牘 牋÷牋牋鉦牘牘牋伍牋÷ 牋伍牋ム哀牋萎牋牘牋萎娃牋牘牘 牋牘牋牘牋牘 牋牋 牋牋牋牘牋鉦渥牋. 牋牘牋迦 牋萎牋牘牋迦 牋伍牋牘 牋朽或牋牋逗姶牘牋 牋牋牘牘牋む牋迦姶牘牘 牋牘牘牋牋牘牘牋む牋牋牘牋. 牋項渥牋牋萎 牋牘牋迦 牋牋牘牋牘 牋朽芦牋萎或 牋伍牘牋牘牘牋伍牋牘 牋迦 牋迦 牋迦姶牘牘 牋牋牘牋迦旭牋牘 牋牘牋迦 牋萎牋牘牋迦 牋伍牋迦姶牘牘 牋牋萎愛牘牋萎或牋逗宛牘牋牋迦阿 牋牋. 牋牋萎或牋牋鉦娃牋 5 牋牘牘牋牋 10 牋牋逗握牋逗扱牋迦芦牘 牋牋牘牋牋朽 牋牋о牋牋迦 牋牘牘牋迦牋伍牋 牋牋牘牋
Chloroplat DNA
Stroma contains soluble enzymes known as rubisco (ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase- oxygenase), accountable for upto 50% of the total leaf proteins. Its molecular weight of 500,000 consists of eight large subunits and eight small subunits and it is credited with one of the most abundant available protein in nature. It executes photosynthesis by accepting carbon dioxide as its substrate and reduces this to carbohydrate status.
Chloroplast ∇宛牘牋牘牋萎鮎 牋牋伍 牋萎牋牋逗牘牋伍 (牋萎或牋牘牋牘牋迦牋伍 牋牋逗宛牘牋牘牋鉦宛牘牋牋鉦牘 牋牘牋萎牋鉦牋伍或牋迦牋牘- 牋牋牋伍或牋牋牘牋牘) 牋牋牋 牋牋逗芦牋逗牘 牋牋萎或牋牘 牋牋牋牘牋牋 牋牘 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋 牋牋牋, ∇握牘牋む牋む 牋牋牘 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牋迦芦牘 50% 牋朽旭牋牘 牋牋朽牋牘牋牋牋鉦旭牘牋牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋. 500,000 牋牋鉦姶牋 牋牋鉦芦牋逗牘牘牋迦旭牘 牋牘牋萎牋朽 牋牋牋逗握牋逗愛牋 牋牘牋牘牋 牋牋牋牋鉦牘牋迦 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牋牋逗握牋逗愛牋 牋牋逗姶牋 牋牋牋牋鉦牘牋迦姶牘 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘牋牘牋む或牋迦 牋牋む牘牋牋む 牋朽或牋伍牋む牋む牋牘牋 牋牋牋牘牘牋牘牋鉦 牋迦 牋牋牋 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牋迦芦牘 牋牋牋牋逗牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋萎或牋む牋牘 牋牘牋牋牋逗牋牋. ∇牘牋萎鮎牋牘 牋÷渥牋鉦牋伍或牋÷姶牋 牋牋鉦姶牋 牋牋牋萎或牋む牋迦牋牘 牋牋牘牋牋逗牋牋÷ 牋牋鉦鮎牋萎 牋牋牋 牋牋伍旭牋牋牋牘 牋伍牋牋牘牋牋牋伍或牋牋牘 牋牋牋迦 牋牘牋伍牘牋 牋牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘牋牋逗姶牋 牋牘牋萎穐牋鉦姐牘牋÷牘牘牋牘 牋伍牋牘牋 牋牋逗牋 牋む牋牋逗牋牋牋朽牘牘.
Chloroplat DNA
Several members of monocots show marginal deviation in their CO2fixation process, generally known as C4 plants. The maize, for example, is a C4 plant in which initial carbon dioxide fixation occurs in leaf mesophyll cells containing chloroplasts, which lack rubisco and ultimately devoid of starch. ∇握牘牋牘牋牘牋牋 牋牘牋牋 牋牋牘牋 牋伍牋牘牋牘牋迦 牋朽牋萎或 CO2 牋牋逗牘牋逗扱牋牘 牋牘牋牋伍或牋牋迦 牋牋牘牘牋牋む 牋朽或牋牋迦姶牋鉦姶牋逗姶 牋牘牋牋逗宛牘牋牘牋 牋萎, 牋牘牋牋逗姶牋 牋伍牋牘牋о鮎牋萎娃牋牋牘 C4 牋牘牘牋 牋牋牋 牋牘 牋牋逗芦牘牋伍牋牘牋 牋萎. ∇握牘牋牋牋牘牋牋 牋牋牋鉦姐牋萎娃牋牘, 牋牋 C4 牋牘牘牋 牋牋牘, 牋牘牋牋逗芦牘 牋牘牘牘 牋萎牋牘 牋牘牋萎鮎牋牘 牋÷渥牋鉦牋伍或牋÷ 牋伍牋逗鮎牋萎牋牋萎娃, 牋牋牘牋牋牘 牋牋伍牋牋 牋牋逗芦牘 牋牋牋鉦芦牋迦牋牋 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牘牋迦姶牘 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋 牋牋牋, 牋牋朽或 牋萎牋牋逗宛牘牋牘牋牋牋逗姶 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋÷圧牘 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牋逗圧牋萎或牋牋 牋牋逗牋÷牋 牋牋牋鉦旭牋о 牋迦牋牘牋牋÷牋 牋牋牋牋鉦渥牋.
The enzyme PEP carboxylase (phospho enol pyruvate carboxylase) acts as a major enzyme, catalyses first half of the reaction by forming four carbon oxaloacetate, which is then converted into aspartic acid and malic acid which are exported to bundle sheath cells, where they are decarboxylated and CO2 is refixed by bundle sheath due to the rubisco and operate the Calvin cycle. In addition to their role in performing photosynthesis and carbon metabolism, chloroplasts are involved in other vital functions such as the synthesis of amino acids and nucleotides, protein synthesis, pigments and hormones
∇牋牋牘牋牘 PEP 牋牘牋萎牋鉦牋伍或牋迦牋伍 (牋牘牋伍牋牋 牋 牋牋牘牋迦 牋牘牘牋萎牋朽牋牘 牋牘牋萎牋鉦牋伍或牋迦牋牘) 牋牋 牋牘牋о鮎牋 牋牋牋牘牋牋鉦 牋牋牋逗牘牋伍牘牋 牋牋牋, 牋牋鉦芦牘牋牋 牋牘牋萎鮎牋牘 牋牋÷牋鉦葵牘牘牋 牋伍牘牋 牋 牋蹏萎葵牋萎牋伍牘牋 牋牋牋, 牋む牋萎牋鉦阿牘 牋牋伍牋牘牋牋萎或牋逗牘 牋牋牋 牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牋鉦芦牋逗牘 牋牋鉦宛牘牋逗亜牘牋鉦 牋牋鉦旭牘牋÷ 牋牋鉦鮎牋萎 牋伍牋牋牋牘牋 牋牘牋牋 牋牘牋牘牋牋 牋伍牋牋 牋牋む牋牘牋萎牋萎娃 牋牘牋伍牘牋 牋牋牋, ∇牋朽或 牋÷牘牋萎牋萎牋鉦牋伍或牋迦牋牘牋÷ 牋牋萎或牋牋 CO2 牋牘 牋萎牋牋逗宛牘牋牋 牋 牋牘牋萎娃牋牋牘 牋牋牋逗旭牋牋牘 牋牘牋謹 牋牋鉦鮎牋萎 牋萎或牋牘牋牘 牋牘牋伍牋牘牋 牋萎 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘牋迦或牋鉦姶牘 牋牋牋逗 牋牋牋逗牘牋伍牘牋 牋牋 牋牋牋. ∇牋伍旭牋牋牋牘 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘牋萎鮎牋牘 牋牘牋朽牋伍或牋牋迦姶牘 牋牋逗旭牋鉦姐牋牋牋÷牋迦 牋朽牋萎或 牋牘牘牋む牘牋牘 牋牋牘牋牋牋牘, 牋牋迦牋牘 牋牋牋鉦芦 牋迦 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘牘牋牋伍芦牋牘牋牘牘牋÷牋, 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牘 牋伍牋牋謹牋迦芦牋劇娃, 牋朽旭牋牋牘牘牋朽牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋項鮎牋萎穐牘牋牘牋 牋伍牋牋謹牋迦芦牋劇娃 牋朽牋牋 牋牋む牋 牋牋牋牘牘牋牘牋 牋牘牋萎牋牋逗握牋鉦芦牋迦 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牘牘牋 牋牘牘牋迦牋 牋牋牋鉦渥牋.
Chloroplast DNA is comparatively large, circular in nature, commonly denoted as ctDNA. The presence of DNA in chloroplast was first identified in 1962. The size of chloroplast DNA is usually 140 kb in higher plants and less than 190 kb in lower eukaryotic plants. However, the size of the ctDNA is generally between 120 and 155 kb. By employing DNA-binding flourescent dye several copies of the plastid genome have been visualized. The size of the chloroplast genome can be comparable to bacteriophage T4 (165 kb). There are many copies of circular DNA in chloroplast, i.e., between 20 and 100 copies per chloroplast in higher plants.
∇牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 DNA 牋牘牋牘牋む或牋迦 牋朽牋む牋牋鉦阿 牋牘牋萎牋迦 牋牘牋牘牋牋牋, 牋伍牋牘牋о鮎牋萎娃牋牋牘 ctDNA 牋牘 牋伍牘牋牋逗牋牋牘牋÷姶牋む 牋牋牋. ∇牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋牋 牘牋 DNA 牋牘牋牋 牋牋牋逗牋 牋牘牋牘牋牋逗宛牘牋牘牋萎或 1962 牋迦 牋牋牋萎或牋む牋牋牘牋÷牋逗牋牋. 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 DNA 牋牘牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋鉦娃牋 牋伍牋牘牋о鮎牋萎娃牋牋牘 140 牋牋.牋牘. 牋牋о或牋 牋牘牋牋牋迦 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋む牋牘牋牋 牋牋牋牘牋萎或牋牘牋牋逗牘 牋牘牋牋牋迦芦牘 190 kb 牋牋牋牘 牋む牋牘牋牋朽牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋. ∇牋牋逗阿牘牋牘, ctDNA 牋牘牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋鉦娃牋 牋伍牋牘牋о鮎牋萎娃牋牋牘 120 牋牋萎或牋牋 155 kb 牋牋о牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋. DNA-binding flourescent dye 牋牘 牋牋牋牘牋牋逗牋牋÷ 牋牋鉦鮎牋萎 牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋逗旭牋÷ 牋牋牘牘牋朽 牋牘牋牋 牋牋牘牋 牋牘牋牘牋迦 牋牘牘牋謹牋牋鉦姶牋牋牋鉦牋牋. ∇牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 牋牋牘牘牋朽 牋牘牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋鉦娃牋 T4 (165 kb) 牋牘牋鉦牋牋牋萎旭牋逗渥牋鉦茜牋牋牋む阿 牋牘牋 牋迦牋朽牘牘. 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋牋 牘牋 牋朽牋む牋牋鉦阿 牋牘牋 DNA 牋牘牋牋 牋牋牘牋 牋牘牋牘牋迦 牋牋牋鉦姶牋牋, 牋牋牋牘 20 牋牋萎或牋牋 100 牋牋伍芦牘牋 牋牘牋牘牋牋 牋牋о或牋 牋牘牋牋牋迦芦牘 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牘牋 牘.
In higher plants, chloroplast DNA exists as double- stranded circular molecule. Unlike nuclear DNA, it does not contain 5-methyl cytosine and is not associated with histones. Its buoyant density is around 1.690 gmL-1, which is corresponding to G + C ratio to approximately 37 per cent. Measurement is based on DNA-DNA association through light on the potential coding capacity of the plastome. The molecular weight of the plastid DNA is between 80 and 100 million, which corresponds between 12,000 and 150,000 base pairs
∇牋о或牋 牋牘牋牋牋迦芦牘, 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 DNA 牋÷穐牘牋牋迦 牋伍牋牘牋萎鮎 牋牋÷牋 牋朽牋む牋牋鉦阿 牋牘牋 牋牋牋牋朽牋牘 牋牋牋牋. 牋牋牋 DNA 牋牘牋牘牋牋÷牋, 牋牋牋 5-牋牋逗哀牘牘牋迦 牋伍牘牘牋牘牋伍牘牘牋牘牋 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋÷愛牘牘 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋項宛牘牋牋萎旭 牋牋迦阿牘牋牘 牋伍牋牋牘牋牋о牋 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋迦牋牘牘. ∇愛牋鉦姶牋 牋む牋牘牋牋牘 牋伍牋牘牋牋牘牘牋む 牋伍牘牋牋鉦旭牘 1.690 gmL-1, 牋牋牋 G + C 牋牋逗扱牋牋む或牋む牋 牋牋牘牋牋牋牋牋牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋, 牋牋牋 牋伍牘牋牋鉦旭牘 37 牋謹牘牋む牋 牋牋牋 牋牋牋. 牋牘牋迦阿牘 牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋萎握牘 牋牘牋牋 牋伍牋牋牋鉦圧牘 牋牘牋÷牋逗牋牘 牋伍牋牘牋牋萎鮎牋牋 牋牘牋牘 DNA-DNA 牋牋伍牋牋 牋伍牋逗渥牋逗牋劇姶牘 牋牘牋牘 牋牋о鮎牋萎葵牋÷牋 牋牋牋 牋牋牋. ∇葵牘牘牋 牋伍牋逗旭牋÷ DNA 牋牘牋牋 牋牋萎握牋鉦娃牋 牋牘牋萎牋朽 80 牋牘牋牋牋 100 牋牋逗芦牋逗渥牋牋 牋牋о牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋, 牋牋牋 12,000 牋牋萎或牋牋 150,000 牋牘牘牋伍 牋牋牋牋 牋牋о牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋
Chloroplat DNA
Chloroplat DNA
Chloroplast contains one type of chromosome and assumes polyploid status. In young leaves, number of chloroplast attains 200 or more. DNA replication in plastid is semi conservative. In chloroplasts of maize and pea, DNA replication begins at two sites about 7000 base pairs apart and proceeds in both the directions. Chloroplasts contain introns. They fall into two classes. One of the intron classes is located in tRNA genes and another class in protein coding region. Several photosynthetic related genes that encode proteins are located in thylakoid membrane.
∇牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 牋牋 牋萎牋 牋牘牋 牋牘牋牋む握牘 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋 牋牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘牘牋迦或牋牘牋萎芦 牋牋逗亜牘 牋項 牋牋鉦姶牘 牋牋項宛牘牘牋 牋牋牋. 牋牋牋 牋牋牘牋迦, 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 牋伍牋牋牘牘 200 牋迦牋牋 牋牋牋む牋牋牋鉦姶 牋牋牘牋牋. Plastid 牋迦 DNA 牋牘牋む或牋萎牋牋 牋伍牘牋牘 牋伍牋牋牘牋牋鉦渥牋朽牋牘 牋牋牋牋. 牋牘牋牋牋牘牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘牋牘牋牋 牋牘牋牋 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牘牋迦芦牘, DNA 牋牘牋む或牋萎牋牋 牋萎牋÷姶 牋牘牘牘 牋牋む牋牋鉦芦 牋朽愛牘牋 7000 牋牘牘牋伍 牋牋む牋迦 牋朽牋萎牋牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋萎牋÷姶 牋牋逗斡牋迦芦牘牋牘 牋牋萎牋牋牋む 牋牋牋. ∇牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋萎 牋牋牋牋鉦 牋牋迦姶牘 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋牋鉦渥牋. 牋朽牋萎 牋萎牋÷姶 牋朽旭牘牋 牋迦牋牘 牋朽宛牘牋牘牋 牋牋. 牋牋牋牋鉦 牋牘 牋む牋萎牋む 牋迦 牋牋牋牋 TRNA 牋牋牘牘牋朽牋迦 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牘 牋牘牋÷牋逗牋牘 牋牘牘牘 牋牋む牋牋迦 牋牋萎牋 牋む牋萎牋む或 牋牋牋牋. 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牋迦姶牘 牋牋牘牋牋÷ 牋牘牋伍牋 牋牋牘牋 牋牋伍旭牋牋牋牘 牋伍牋牋牘牋牋о或牋む 牋伍牋牋牘牋牋о 牋牋牘牘牋朽牋迦 牋牘 牋迦鮎牋牘牘牋牋逗亜牘 牋牘 牋萎芦牘 牋牋牋鉦姶牋牋.
Several evidences confirmed that chloroplast DNA contains 45 genes coding for RNA and 27 genes coding for proteins. These proteins are mainly involved in chloroplast gene expression. The genes coding for proteins of the thylakoid membrane and another 10 gene products are committed for electron transport process. A restriction map for maize chloroplast DNA (139 kb) reveals that plastome contains unique 22,000 base pair inverted repeated sequence, containing the rRNA genes (Fig. 5.1). Some other plastome with similar repeats contains two copies of rRNA genes.
∇牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 DNA 牋迦 45 牋牋牘牘牋朽牋迦 RNA 牋牘牋伍牋 牋牘牋÷牋逗牋牘 牋牋萎或牋牋 27 牋牋牘牘牋朽牋迦 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牋 牋牘牋伍牋 牋牘牋÷牋逗牋牘 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋鉦姶牋牋牋 牋牋牘牋 牋萎牋牘牋朽牋迦 牋牋逗旭牘牋 牋萎或牋牋牋鉦渥牋. ∇ 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牘牋 牋牘牋о鮎牋牋牋牘 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 牋牋牘牘 牋朽牋牋牋む牋萎娃牋迦 牋牘牘牋迦牋 牋牋牋鉦渥牋. 牋牋迦牘牋萎鮎 牋牘 牋牋鉦 牋牘牋逗牋萎牋萎扱牋牘 牋牘牋牋伍或牋 牋牘牋伍牋 牋牘牋迦牋牘牘牋牋逗亜牘 牋牘 牋 牋牘牋牋 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牋迦牘 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牋萎牋 10 牋牋牘牘 牋牋む牋牋む牋 牋迦牘 牋牋牘牘牋朽牋迦 牋牘牋÷牋逗牋牘 牋牋牋牋鉦渥牋. ∇握牘牋牋牋牘牋牋 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 DNA (139 kb) 牋牘牋伍牋 牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋逗阿牋 牋牋鉦牋牘, 牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋萎握牘牋 22,000 牋牘牘牋伍 牋牋む牋迦姶牘 牋朽或牋迦牋 牋牘牋牋萎牋朽牋む 牋牋逗握牋鉦姶牋逗姶 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋 牋牋牋, 牋朽牋牋逗芦牘 rRNA 牋牋牘牘牋朽牋迦 (Fig. 5.1) 牋牋牋牋鉦渥牋. 牋牋迦鮎牋牋牋 牋牘牋牋萎牋朽牋む牋牋鉦芦牋む牋牘 牋牋牋÷牋逗姶 牋牋む牋 牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋逗旭牋牘牋 rRNA 牋牋牘牘牋朽牋 牋萎牋÷姶 牋牘牋牘牋迦姶牘 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋鉦姶牋牋.
Chloroplat DNA
Ribosomes of chloroplast show sedimentation coefficient of 70 S Svedberg units, i.e., 70 S. The ribosomes of cytoplasm exhibits 80 S. The 70 S ribosomes are made up of 23 S and 16 S. Presence of 70 S ribosomes in chloroplast have a resemblance to prokaryotic ribosome, clearly strengthens the hypothesis of its prokaryotic origin. Chloroplast ribosomes contain about 50 ribosomal proteins, distributed between the two subunits. The 23 S, 5 S, 4.5 S rRNA are present in the 50 S subunit and the 16 S rRNA is in the 30 S subunit. Plastid contains tRNA synthetase enzymes. The presence of plastid tRNA is able to charge all of the 20 protein amino acids. Synthesis of protein in chloroplast utilizes normal genetic code.
70 S Svedberg 牋牘牋牋逗牋 , 牋牋牋牘, 70 S. 牋牘牋牋 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 牋劇旭 牋牋朽牘牋劇牋 牋牋牋牋牋 牋牘牋牋 牋萎或牋牘牘 牋牋む握牋伍 牋伍牘牘牋牘牋牘牘牋 牋牋 牋牘牋牋 牋萎或牋牘牘 牋伍牋牋 牋牋伍 80 S. 牋牘牋牘牋萎或牋逗宛牘牘牋 牋牋牋. 70 S 牋萎旭牋牋伍牋牋 牋牘 23 S 牋牋萎或牋牋 16 S. 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋牋 牘牋 70 S 牋萎穐牋逗牋む握牋 牋牋牋逗牋伍姶牋 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋萎穐牘牋牋逗牘 牋萎或牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牋牋 牋牘牋 牋迦或牋 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋牋, 牋牘牋牋 牋牘牋萎 牋牋萎或牋牘牋牋逗牘 牋牘牋迦 牋牘牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋迦葵牋牋牘 牋伍牋牋劇旭牋牋牘 牋牘牋迦葵牋萎牋伍牘牋 牋牋牋. ∇牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 牋萎或牋牘牘 牋伍牋 牋牘牋 牋迦 50 牋萎或牋牘牘 牋伍牋牋 牋牋迦 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牘牋 牋牋牋牋鉦渥牋, 牋牋朽或 牋萎牋÷姶 牋牋牋牋鉦牘牋 牋牋о牘 牋牋牋牋逗娃牘 牋牘牋牋牘牋÷阿牘牋牋鉦渥牋. 23 S, 5 S, 4.5 SRRNA 牋迦 50 S 牋伍牋牘牋牘牋牋逗牘牋 牋牋牋鉦姶牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 16 S RRNA 30 S 牋伍牋牘牋牘牋牋逗牘牋 牋牋牋 牋牋牋. 牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋逗旭牋÷牋迦芦 TRNA 牋伍牋逗牋ム牋牘牋伍 牋牋牋牘牋牋牋迦 牋牋牋牋鉦渥牋. 牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋逗旭牋÷ tRNA 牋牘牋牋 牋牋牋逗牋伍姶牋 20 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牘 牋牋牘牋牘 牋牋牋鉦芦 牋迦姶牋逗姶牋牋牋逗姶牘 牋牋鉦旭牘牘 牋牘牋牋朽牘牘. 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋牋 牘牋 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牘 牋牘牋牋 牋伍牋逗牋ム宛牘牋逗宛牘 牋伍牋牘牋о鮎牋萎娃 牋牋牘牘 牋伍牋牋牘牋む牋牋鉦姶牋逗姶 牋牋牋牘牋牋逗牋牘牋牘牋牋 牋牋牋.
The sequences of the maize and tobacco 16 S rRNA genes are 1491 and 1486 nucleotides in length, respectively. They show 96% sequence homology with each other. Similarly, DNA sequence of 23 S rRNA genes from maize and tobacco is 2898 and 2804 nucleotides respectively. The distance between 16 S (end) and the 23 S (start) of rRNA gene is 2408 base pairs in maize and 2080 in tobacco (Table 5.2). On the contrary, the distance among prokaryotic organisms is very less, for example, in E. coli distance is 440 base pairs. Longer distance among higher plants is due to the presence of introns upto 950 base pairs.
牋牘牋牋牋牘牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘 牋牘牋牘 16 S rRNA 牋牋牘牘牋朽牋 牋朽旭牘牋伍牋迦 牋朽旭牘牋伍牋牘 1491 牋牋萎或牋牋 1486 牋牘牘牋牋伍芦牋牘牋牘牘牋÷芦 牋牘 牋牘 牋÷圧牘牋牘 牋牋牋鉦姶牋牋. 牋朽牋萎 牋牋牋牋鉦姶牋逗阿牘牋牘 牋牋牋牋 96% 牋伍牘牋牋鉦姶牘牋 homology 牋牘牋牋逗牋牘. 牋牋牘牋朽或牋о牋牋牘, 牋牘牋牋牋牘牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘 牋牘牋牘 牋牘牋牋÷牋 23 S rRNA 牋牋牘牘牋朽牋 DNA 牋謹牋迦或牋牋 牋朽旭牘牋伍牋牘 2898 牋牋萎或牋牋 2804 牋牘牘牋牋伍芦牋牘牋牘牘牋÷芦 牋牘 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋牋. RRNA 牋牋牘牘牋朽 牋牘牋牋 16 S (牋牋牋牋逗牋牘) 牋牋萎或牋牋 23 S (牋牘牘牘 牋萎牋牘牋) 牋牋о牘 牋牘牘牋萎 牋牘牋牋牋牘牋牋牋迦 2408 牋牋о鮎牋 牋牋む牋迦 牋牋萎或牋牋 2080 牋牘 牋牘牋牘牋迦 (牋牋牋逗旭牋 5.2) 牋牋о牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋. 牋牘牋牋逗牋 牋朽或牋萎牋牘牋о牋牘, 牋牘牋萎 牋牋萎或牋牘牋牋逗牘 牋牘牋朽牋 牋牋о牘 牋牘牘牋萎 牋牋鉦芦牋 牋む牋牘牋牋朽牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋, 牋牋牋鉦姐牋萎娃牋牋 E. coli 牋牘牘牋萎 440 牋牘牘牋伍 牋牋む牋. 牋牋о或牋 牋牋逗牋牘牘牋朽牋 牋牋о牘 牋牘牘牋萎 950 牋牘牘牋伍 牋牋む牋 牋朽旭牋牘 牋牋牋牋鉦 牋牘牋 牋牋牋÷牋 牋朽芦牋 牋牋萎牋牋牋む 牋牋牋.
Chloroplat DNA
- Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) is also known as plastid DNA (ptDNA). - Circular double stranded DNA molecule - Chloroplast genome size ranges 120-217kb with majority of plants fall into 120-160kb. (Pelargonium has a chloroplast genome size 217kb)contain about 100 genes to synthesize proteins - cpDNA regions includes Large Single-Copy (LSC) & Small Single-Copy (SSC) regions, and Inverted Repeats (IRA & IRB). - Conifers and a group of legumes lack Inverted Repeats. Chloroplast genome
IRA IRB LSC SSC
- Complete chloroplast DNA sequences of four land plants (Nicotiana tabacum, Marchantia polymorpha, Oryza sativa and Epifagus virginiana) were available for comparative study on structure and gene content of chloroplast genomes in 1980s. - At present, the number of complete chloroplast genome sequences is 122 (from 114 different organisms). eg. Arabidopsis thaliana, Coffea arabica, Eucalyptus globulus, Glycine max, Gossypium hirsutum, Helianthus annuus, Lycopersicon esculentum, Nymphaea alba, Phaseolus vulgaris, Pinus koraiensis, Piper cenocladum, Solanum tuberosum, Triticum aestivum, Vitis vinifera, Zea mays etc. Chloroplast genome
- cpDNA is a relatively abundant component of plant total DNA, thus facilitating extraction and analysis. - Conservative rate of nucleotide substitution enables to resolve plant phylogenetic relationships at deep levels of evolution. eg. familial level; mono- & dicotyledonous; - Chloroplast protein-coding genes evolve at a rate that is on average fivefold slower than plant nuclear genes. Characteristics of Chloroplast Genome
- Strictly maternally inherited in most angiosperms while in conifers, inheritance is paternal. - Chloroplast DNA is passed on from one generation to the next with only an occasional mutation altering the molecule; sexual recombination does not occur. Characteristics of Chloroplast Genome
- cpDNA regions can be amplified by means of PCR. - The resulted PCR products may be subjected to RFLP or DNA sequencing. - Common cpDNA regions used in systematic study: rbcL (1400bp), trnL-trnF (250-800bp), atpB- rbcL (1000bp), trnL intron (300bp), matK (2600bp), trnT-trnL (400-800bp), 16S (1400bp), rpoC (3600bp) etc. Molecular Systematics on cpDNA
IRA IRB LSC SSC rbcL matK atpB-rbcL trnL intron trnL-trnF trnT-trnL rpoC 16S
- Restriction site mapping of the entire chloroplast genome. (involve the isolation of chloroplast DNA from the total DNA) Molecular Systematics on cpDNA The whole chloroplast genomes of different Brassica species were digested with SacI
- Singular structural rearrangements (e.g. inversions and intron losses). - Loss of intron of rpl2 gene was found in species of order Caryophyllales (cacti, amaranths, carnations, carnivorous plants). Molecular Systematics on cpDNA
- On of the most comprehensive phylogenetic study of cpDNA rearrangement involved a 22kb inversion found to be shared by 57 genera representing all tribes of the family Asteraceae (sunflowers), a large plant family with 20,000 species and 1100 genera. - 50kb inversion brought psbA closer to rbcL in legumes. - 25kb inversion brought atpA closer to rbcL in wheat. Molecular Systematics on cpDNA
H. nervosa H. dyeri H. dryobalanoides H. beccariana H. pierrei H. latifolia H. mengerawan H. myrtifolia H. ferruginea H. sangal H. nutans H. odorata H. helferi H. apiculata H. wightiana Neobalanocarpus heimii 69 84 89 100 75 5192 Subsection Hopea Subsection Dryobalanoides Subsection Sphaerocarpae Subsection PierreaHopea clade Dryobalanoides clade Outgroup 72-bp deletion in the trnL-trnF H o p e a D r y o b a l a n o i d e s Phylogeny based on the trnL-trnF, trnT-trnL and atpB-rbcL sequences. Upuna borneensis H. subalata 72 96 H. bilitonensis Tree length = 143 CI = 0.8811 RI = 0.8651 H. pubescens
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Chloroplat DNA

  • 1. Chloroplast DNA Presented By Dr. T,Ugandhar Asst. Prof of Botany GDC MAHABUBABAD
  • 5. Structural organization of chloroplast is signified by the presence of double membrane envelope and soluble phase, the stroma, and an internal membrane system, the thylakoids. Both thylakoid and stromal systems are committed for light reaction and carbon dioxide fixation respectively. Chloroplast attains diversified shapes. Higher plants exhibit lens shaped chloroplasts in their cytosol. The size measures anywhere between 5 and 10 pm long Chloroplast
  • 8. Chloroplast 牋牘牋迦 牋萎牋牘牋迦 牋伍牋牘 牋牘牋牘牋 牋牋逗旭牋迦鮎牋 牋伍牋伍哀 牋牘牋朽牋牘牋 牋牘牘 牋 牋牋牘牋朽芦牋牘 牋牋萎或牋牘 牋牘牋萎或牋牘 牋牘牋, 牋伍牋牘牘牘 牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牘 牋牋牋む旭牋牋 牋牘牘 牋 牋朽牋牋朽牋伍哀, 牋牘牋迦牋牋逗亜牘牘 牋牋牋逗牘牋 牋牘牋朽圧牋萎芦 牋牘牋萎或牋む牋牋牋÷牋牘牋. 牋牘牋迦鮎牋牘牋迦渥牋牋逗亜牘 牋牋萎或牋牘 牋伍牋牘牘牘 牋牋迦 牋朽牋牋朽牋伍哀牋迦 牋朽牋萎牋伍牋 牋牘牋迦牋む或 牋伍葵牋牋牘牋牘 牋牋萎或牋牘 牋牘牋迦旭牋牋牘 牋÷牋牋鉦牘牘牋伍牋÷ 牋伍牋ム哀牋萎牋牘牋萎娃牋牘牘 牋牘牋牘牋牘 牋牋 牋牋牋牘牋鉦渥牋. 牋牘牋迦 牋萎牋牘牋迦 牋伍牋牘 牋朽或牋牋逗姶牘牋 牋牋牘牘牋む牋迦姶牘牘 牋牘牘牋牋牘牘牋む牋牋牘牋. 牋項渥牋牋萎 牋牘牋迦 牋牋牘牋牘 牋朽芦牋萎或 牋伍牘牋牘牘牋伍牋牘 牋迦 牋迦 牋迦姶牘牘 牋牋牘牋迦旭牋牘 牋牘牋迦 牋萎牋牘牋迦 牋伍牋迦姶牘牘 牋牋萎愛牘牋萎或牋逗宛牘牋牋迦阿 牋牋. 牋牋萎或牋牋鉦娃牋 5 牋牘牘牋牋 10 牋牋逗握牋逗扱牋迦芦牘 牋牋牘牋牋朽 牋牋о牋牋迦 牋牘牘牋迦牋伍牋 牋牋牘牋
  • 10. Stroma contains soluble enzymes known as rubisco (ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase- oxygenase), accountable for upto 50% of the total leaf proteins. Its molecular weight of 500,000 consists of eight large subunits and eight small subunits and it is credited with one of the most abundant available protein in nature. It executes photosynthesis by accepting carbon dioxide as its substrate and reduces this to carbohydrate status.
  • 11. Chloroplast ∇宛牘牋牘牋萎鮎 牋牋伍 牋萎牋牋逗牘牋伍 (牋萎或牋牘牋牘牋迦牋伍 牋牋逗宛牘牋牘牋鉦宛牘牋牋鉦牘 牋牘牋萎牋鉦牋伍或牋迦牋牘- 牋牋牋伍或牋牋牘牋牘) 牋牋牋 牋牋逗芦牋逗牘 牋牋萎或牋牘 牋牋牋牘牋牋 牋牘 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋 牋牋牋, ∇握牘牋む牋む 牋牋牘 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牋迦芦牘 50% 牋朽旭牋牘 牋牋朽牋牘牋牋牋鉦旭牘牋牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋. 500,000 牋牋鉦姶牋 牋牋鉦芦牋逗牘牘牋迦旭牘 牋牘牋萎牋朽 牋牋牋逗握牋逗愛牋 牋牘牋牘牋 牋牋牋牋鉦牘牋迦 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牋牋逗握牋逗愛牋 牋牋逗姶牋 牋牋牋牋鉦牘牋迦姶牘 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘牋牘牋む或牋迦 牋牋む牘牋牋む 牋朽或牋伍牋む牋む牋牘牋 牋牋牋牘牘牋牘牋鉦 牋迦 牋牋牋 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牋迦芦牘 牋牋牋牋逗牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋萎或牋む牋牘 牋牘牋牋牋逗牋牋. ∇牘牋萎鮎牋牘 牋÷渥牋鉦牋伍或牋÷姶牋 牋牋鉦姶牋 牋牋牋萎或牋む牋迦牋牘 牋牋牘牋牋逗牋牋÷ 牋牋鉦鮎牋萎 牋牋牋 牋牋伍旭牋牋牋牘 牋伍牋牋牘牋牋牋伍或牋牋牘 牋牋牋迦 牋牘牋伍牘牋 牋牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘牋牋逗姶牋 牋牘牋萎穐牋鉦姐牘牋÷牘牘牋牘 牋伍牋牘牋 牋牋逗牋 牋む牋牋逗牋牋牋朽牘牘.
  • 13. Several members of monocots show marginal deviation in their CO2fixation process, generally known as C4 plants. The maize, for example, is a C4 plant in which initial carbon dioxide fixation occurs in leaf mesophyll cells containing chloroplasts, which lack rubisco and ultimately devoid of starch. ∇握牘牋牘牋牘牋牋 牋牘牋牋 牋牋牘牋 牋伍牋牘牋牘牋迦 牋朽牋萎或 CO2 牋牋逗牘牋逗扱牋牘 牋牘牋牋伍或牋牋迦 牋牋牘牘牋牋む 牋朽或牋牋迦姶牋鉦姶牋逗姶 牋牘牋牋逗宛牘牋牘牋 牋萎, 牋牘牋牋逗姶牋 牋伍牋牘牋о鮎牋萎娃牋牋牘 C4 牋牘牘牋 牋牋牋 牋牘 牋牋逗芦牘牋伍牋牘牋 牋萎. ∇握牘牋牋牋牘牋牋 牋牋牋鉦姐牋萎娃牋牘, 牋牋 C4 牋牘牘牋 牋牋牘, 牋牘牋牋逗芦牘 牋牘牘牘 牋萎牋牘 牋牘牋萎鮎牋牘 牋÷渥牋鉦牋伍或牋÷ 牋伍牋逗鮎牋萎牋牋萎娃, 牋牋牘牋牋牘 牋牋伍牋牋 牋牋逗芦牘 牋牋牋鉦芦牋迦牋牋 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牘牋迦姶牘 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋 牋牋牋, 牋牋朽或 牋萎牋牋逗宛牘牋牘牋牋牋逗姶 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋÷圧牘 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牋逗圧牋萎或牋牋 牋牋逗牋÷牋 牋牋牋鉦旭牋о 牋迦牋牘牋牋÷牋 牋牋牋牋鉦渥牋.
  • 14. The enzyme PEP carboxylase (phospho enol pyruvate carboxylase) acts as a major enzyme, catalyses first half of the reaction by forming four carbon oxaloacetate, which is then converted into aspartic acid and malic acid which are exported to bundle sheath cells, where they are decarboxylated and CO2 is refixed by bundle sheath due to the rubisco and operate the Calvin cycle. In addition to their role in performing photosynthesis and carbon metabolism, chloroplasts are involved in other vital functions such as the synthesis of amino acids and nucleotides, protein synthesis, pigments and hormones
  • 15. ∇牋牋牘牋牘 PEP 牋牘牋萎牋鉦牋伍或牋迦牋伍 (牋牘牋伍牋牋 牋 牋牋牘牋迦 牋牘牘牋萎牋朽牋牘 牋牘牋萎牋鉦牋伍或牋迦牋牘) 牋牋 牋牘牋о鮎牋 牋牋牋牘牋牋鉦 牋牋牋逗牘牋伍牘牋 牋牋牋, 牋牋鉦芦牘牋牋 牋牘牋萎鮎牋牘 牋牋÷牋鉦葵牘牘牋 牋伍牘牋 牋 牋蹏萎葵牋萎牋伍牘牋 牋牋牋, 牋む牋萎牋鉦阿牘 牋牋伍牋牘牋牋萎或牋逗牘 牋牋牋 牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牋鉦芦牋逗牘 牋牋鉦宛牘牋逗亜牘牋鉦 牋牋鉦旭牘牋÷ 牋牋鉦鮎牋萎 牋伍牋牋牋牘牋 牋牘牋牋 牋牘牋牘牋牋 牋伍牋牋 牋牋む牋牘牋萎牋萎娃 牋牘牋伍牘牋 牋牋牋, ∇牋朽或 牋÷牘牋萎牋萎牋鉦牋伍或牋迦牋牘牋÷ 牋牋萎或牋牋 CO2 牋牘 牋萎牋牋逗宛牘牋牋 牋 牋牘牋萎娃牋牋牘 牋牋牋逗旭牋牋牘 牋牘牋謹 牋牋鉦鮎牋萎 牋萎或牋牘牋牘 牋牘牋伍牋牘牋 牋萎 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘牋迦或牋鉦姶牘 牋牋牋逗 牋牋牋逗牘牋伍牘牋 牋牋 牋牋牋. ∇牋伍旭牋牋牋牘 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘牋萎鮎牋牘 牋牘牋朽牋伍或牋牋迦姶牘 牋牋逗旭牋鉦姐牋牋牋÷牋迦 牋朽牋萎或 牋牘牘牋む牘牋牘 牋牋牘牋牋牋牘, 牋牋迦牋牘 牋牋牋鉦芦 牋迦 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘牘牋牋伍芦牋牘牋牘牘牋÷牋, 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牘 牋伍牋牋謹牋迦芦牋劇娃, 牋朽旭牋牋牘牘牋朽牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋項鮎牋萎穐牘牋牘牋 牋伍牋牋謹牋迦芦牋劇娃 牋朽牋牋 牋牋む牋 牋牋牋牘牘牋牘牋 牋牘牋萎牋牋逗握牋鉦芦牋迦 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牘牘牋 牋牘牘牋迦牋 牋牋牋鉦渥牋.
  • 16. Chloroplast DNA is comparatively large, circular in nature, commonly denoted as ctDNA. The presence of DNA in chloroplast was first identified in 1962. The size of chloroplast DNA is usually 140 kb in higher plants and less than 190 kb in lower eukaryotic plants. However, the size of the ctDNA is generally between 120 and 155 kb. By employing DNA-binding flourescent dye several copies of the plastid genome have been visualized. The size of the chloroplast genome can be comparable to bacteriophage T4 (165 kb). There are many copies of circular DNA in chloroplast, i.e., between 20 and 100 copies per chloroplast in higher plants.
  • 17. ∇牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 DNA 牋牘牋牘牋む或牋迦 牋朽牋む牋牋鉦阿 牋牘牋萎牋迦 牋牘牋牘牋牋牋, 牋伍牋牘牋о鮎牋萎娃牋牋牘 ctDNA 牋牘 牋伍牘牋牋逗牋牋牘牋÷姶牋む 牋牋牋. ∇牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋牋 牘牋 DNA 牋牘牋牋 牋牋牋逗牋 牋牘牋牘牋牋逗宛牘牋牘牋萎或 1962 牋迦 牋牋牋萎或牋む牋牋牘牋÷牋逗牋牋. 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 DNA 牋牘牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋鉦娃牋 牋伍牋牘牋о鮎牋萎娃牋牋牘 140 牋牋.牋牘. 牋牋о或牋 牋牘牋牋牋迦 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋む牋牘牋牋 牋牋牋牘牋萎或牋牘牋牋逗牘 牋牘牋牋牋迦芦牘 190 kb 牋牋牋牘 牋む牋牘牋牋朽牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋. ∇牋牋逗阿牘牋牘, ctDNA 牋牘牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋鉦娃牋 牋伍牋牘牋о鮎牋萎娃牋牋牘 120 牋牋萎或牋牋 155 kb 牋牋о牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋. DNA-binding flourescent dye 牋牘 牋牋牋牘牋牋逗牋牋÷ 牋牋鉦鮎牋萎 牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋逗旭牋÷ 牋牋牘牘牋朽 牋牘牋牋 牋牋牘牋 牋牘牋牘牋迦 牋牘牘牋謹牋牋鉦姶牋牋牋鉦牋牋. ∇牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 牋牋牘牘牋朽 牋牘牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋鉦娃牋 T4 (165 kb) 牋牘牋鉦牋牋牋萎旭牋逗渥牋鉦茜牋牋牋む阿 牋牘牋 牋迦牋朽牘牘. 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋牋 牘牋 牋朽牋む牋牋鉦阿 牋牘牋 DNA 牋牘牋牋 牋牋牘牋 牋牘牋牘牋迦 牋牋牋鉦姶牋牋, 牋牋牋牘 20 牋牋萎或牋牋 100 牋牋伍芦牘牋 牋牘牋牘牋牋 牋牋о或牋 牋牘牋牋牋迦芦牘 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牘牋 牘.
  • 18. In higher plants, chloroplast DNA exists as double- stranded circular molecule. Unlike nuclear DNA, it does not contain 5-methyl cytosine and is not associated with histones. Its buoyant density is around 1.690 gmL-1, which is corresponding to G + C ratio to approximately 37 per cent. Measurement is based on DNA-DNA association through light on the potential coding capacity of the plastome. The molecular weight of the plastid DNA is between 80 and 100 million, which corresponds between 12,000 and 150,000 base pairs
  • 19. ∇牋о或牋 牋牘牋牋牋迦芦牘, 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 DNA 牋÷穐牘牋牋迦 牋伍牋牘牋萎鮎 牋牋÷牋 牋朽牋む牋牋鉦阿 牋牘牋 牋牋牋牋朽牋牘 牋牋牋牋. 牋牋牋 DNA 牋牘牋牘牋牋÷牋, 牋牋牋 5-牋牋逗哀牘牘牋迦 牋伍牘牘牋牘牋伍牘牘牋牘牋 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋÷愛牘牘 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋項宛牘牋牋萎旭 牋牋迦阿牘牋牘 牋伍牋牋牘牋牋о牋 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋迦牋牘牘. ∇愛牋鉦姶牋 牋む牋牘牋牋牘 牋伍牋牘牋牋牘牘牋む 牋伍牘牋牋鉦旭牘 1.690 gmL-1, 牋牋牋 G + C 牋牋逗扱牋牋む或牋む牋 牋牋牘牋牋牋牋牋牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋, 牋牋牋 牋伍牘牋牋鉦旭牘 37 牋謹牘牋む牋 牋牋牋 牋牋牋. 牋牘牋迦阿牘 牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋萎握牘 牋牘牋牋 牋伍牋牋牋鉦圧牘 牋牘牋÷牋逗牋牘 牋伍牋牘牋牋萎鮎牋牋 牋牘牋牘 DNA-DNA 牋牋伍牋牋 牋伍牋逗渥牋逗牋劇姶牘 牋牘牋牘 牋牋о鮎牋萎葵牋÷牋 牋牋牋 牋牋牋. ∇葵牘牘牋 牋伍牋逗旭牋÷ DNA 牋牘牋牋 牋牋萎握牋鉦娃牋 牋牘牋萎牋朽 80 牋牘牋牋牋 100 牋牋逗芦牋逗渥牋牋 牋牋о牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋, 牋牋牋 12,000 牋牋萎或牋牋 150,000 牋牘牘牋伍 牋牋牋牋 牋牋о牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋
  • 22. Chloroplast contains one type of chromosome and assumes polyploid status. In young leaves, number of chloroplast attains 200 or more. DNA replication in plastid is semi conservative. In chloroplasts of maize and pea, DNA replication begins at two sites about 7000 base pairs apart and proceeds in both the directions. Chloroplasts contain introns. They fall into two classes. One of the intron classes is located in tRNA genes and another class in protein coding region. Several photosynthetic related genes that encode proteins are located in thylakoid membrane.
  • 23. ∇牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 牋牋 牋萎牋 牋牘牋 牋牘牋牋む握牘 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋 牋牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘牘牋迦或牋牘牋萎芦 牋牋逗亜牘 牋項 牋牋鉦姶牘 牋牋項宛牘牘牋 牋牋牋. 牋牋牋 牋牋牘牋迦, 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 牋伍牋牋牘牘 200 牋迦牋牋 牋牋牋む牋牋牋鉦姶 牋牋牘牋牋. Plastid 牋迦 DNA 牋牘牋む或牋萎牋牋 牋伍牘牋牘 牋伍牋牋牘牋牋鉦渥牋朽牋牘 牋牋牋牋. 牋牘牋牋牋牘牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘牋牘牋牋 牋牘牋牋 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牘牋迦芦牘, DNA 牋牘牋む或牋萎牋牋 牋萎牋÷姶 牋牘牘牘 牋牋む牋牋鉦芦 牋朽愛牘牋 7000 牋牘牘牋伍 牋牋む牋迦 牋朽牋萎牋牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋萎牋÷姶 牋牋逗斡牋迦芦牘牋牘 牋牋萎牋牋牋む 牋牋牋. ∇牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋萎 牋牋牋牋鉦 牋牋迦姶牘 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋牋鉦渥牋. 牋朽牋萎 牋萎牋÷姶 牋朽旭牘牋 牋迦牋牘 牋朽宛牘牋牘牋 牋牋. 牋牋牋牋鉦 牋牘 牋む牋萎牋む 牋迦 牋牋牋牋 TRNA 牋牋牘牘牋朽牋迦 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牘 牋牘牋÷牋逗牋牘 牋牘牘牘 牋牋む牋牋迦 牋牋萎牋 牋む牋萎牋む或 牋牋牋牋. 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牋迦姶牘 牋牋牘牋牋÷ 牋牘牋伍牋 牋牋牘牋 牋牋伍旭牋牋牋牘 牋伍牋牋牘牋牋о或牋む 牋伍牋牋牘牋牋о 牋牋牘牘牋朽牋迦 牋牘 牋迦鮎牋牘牘牋牋逗亜牘 牋牘 牋萎芦牘 牋牋牋鉦姶牋牋.
  • 24. Several evidences confirmed that chloroplast DNA contains 45 genes coding for RNA and 27 genes coding for proteins. These proteins are mainly involved in chloroplast gene expression. The genes coding for proteins of the thylakoid membrane and another 10 gene products are committed for electron transport process. A restriction map for maize chloroplast DNA (139 kb) reveals that plastome contains unique 22,000 base pair inverted repeated sequence, containing the rRNA genes (Fig. 5.1). Some other plastome with similar repeats contains two copies of rRNA genes.
  • 25. ∇牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 DNA 牋迦 45 牋牋牘牘牋朽牋迦 RNA 牋牘牋伍牋 牋牘牋÷牋逗牋牘 牋牋萎或牋牋 27 牋牋牘牘牋朽牋迦 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牋 牋牘牋伍牋 牋牘牋÷牋逗牋牘 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋鉦姶牋牋牋 牋牋牘牋 牋萎牋牘牋朽牋迦 牋牋逗旭牘牋 牋萎或牋牋牋鉦渥牋. ∇ 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牘牋 牋牘牋о鮎牋牋牋牘 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 牋牋牘牘 牋朽牋牋牋む牋萎娃牋迦 牋牘牘牋迦牋 牋牋牋鉦渥牋. 牋牋迦牘牋萎鮎 牋牘 牋牋鉦 牋牘牋逗牋萎牋萎扱牋牘 牋牘牋牋伍或牋 牋牘牋伍牋 牋牘牋迦牋牘牘牋牋逗亜牘 牋牘 牋 牋牘牋牋 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牋迦牘 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牋萎牋 10 牋牋牘牘 牋牋む牋牋む牋 牋迦牘 牋牋牘牘牋朽牋迦 牋牘牋÷牋逗牋牘 牋牋牋牋鉦渥牋. ∇握牘牋牋牋牘牋牋 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 DNA (139 kb) 牋牘牋伍牋 牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋逗阿牋 牋牋鉦牋牘, 牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋萎握牘牋 22,000 牋牘牘牋伍 牋牋む牋迦姶牘 牋朽或牋迦牋 牋牘牋牋萎牋朽牋む 牋牋逗握牋鉦姶牋逗姶 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋 牋牋牋, 牋朽牋牋逗芦牘 rRNA 牋牋牘牘牋朽牋迦 (Fig. 5.1) 牋牋牋牋鉦渥牋. 牋牋迦鮎牋牋牋 牋牘牋牋萎牋朽牋む牋牋鉦芦牋む牋牘 牋牋牋÷牋逗姶 牋牋む牋 牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋逗旭牋牘牋 rRNA 牋牋牘牘牋朽牋 牋萎牋÷姶 牋牘牋牘牋迦姶牘 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋鉦姶牋牋.
  • 27. Ribosomes of chloroplast show sedimentation coefficient of 70 S Svedberg units, i.e., 70 S. The ribosomes of cytoplasm exhibits 80 S. The 70 S ribosomes are made up of 23 S and 16 S. Presence of 70 S ribosomes in chloroplast have a resemblance to prokaryotic ribosome, clearly strengthens the hypothesis of its prokaryotic origin. Chloroplast ribosomes contain about 50 ribosomal proteins, distributed between the two subunits. The 23 S, 5 S, 4.5 S rRNA are present in the 50 S subunit and the 16 S rRNA is in the 30 S subunit. Plastid contains tRNA synthetase enzymes. The presence of plastid tRNA is able to charge all of the 20 protein amino acids. Synthesis of protein in chloroplast utilizes normal genetic code.
  • 28. 70 S Svedberg 牋牘牋牋逗牋 , 牋牋牋牘, 70 S. 牋牘牋牋 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 牋劇旭 牋牋朽牘牋劇牋 牋牋牋牋牋 牋牘牋牋 牋萎或牋牘牘 牋牋む握牋伍 牋伍牘牘牋牘牋牘牘牋 牋牋 牋牘牋牋 牋萎或牋牘牘 牋伍牋牋 牋牋伍 80 S. 牋牘牋牘牋萎或牋逗宛牘牘牋 牋牋牋. 70 S 牋萎旭牋牋伍牋牋 牋牘 23 S 牋牋萎或牋牋 16 S. 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋牋 牘牋 70 S 牋萎穐牋逗牋む握牋 牋牋牋逗牋伍姶牋 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋萎穐牘牋牋逗牘 牋萎或牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牋牋 牋牘牋 牋迦或牋 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋牋, 牋牘牋牋 牋牘牋萎 牋牋萎或牋牘牋牋逗牘 牋牘牋迦 牋牘牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋迦葵牋牋牘 牋伍牋牋劇旭牋牋牘 牋牘牋迦葵牋萎牋伍牘牋 牋牋牋. ∇牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋 牋萎或牋牘牘 牋伍牋 牋牘牋 牋迦 50 牋萎或牋牘牘 牋伍牋牋 牋牋迦 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牘牋 牋牋牋牋鉦渥牋, 牋牋朽或 牋萎牋÷姶 牋牋牋牋鉦牘牋 牋牋о牘 牋牋牋牋逗娃牘 牋牘牋牋牘牋÷阿牘牋牋鉦渥牋. 23 S, 5 S, 4.5 SRRNA 牋迦 50 S 牋伍牋牘牋牘牋牋逗牘牋 牋牋牋鉦姶牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 16 S RRNA 30 S 牋伍牋牘牋牘牋牋逗牘牋 牋牋牋 牋牋牋. 牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋逗旭牋÷牋迦芦 TRNA 牋伍牋逗牋ム牋牘牋伍 牋牋牋牘牋牋牋迦 牋牋牋牋鉦渥牋. 牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋逗旭牋÷ tRNA 牋牘牋牋 牋牋牋逗牋伍姶牋 20 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牘 牋牋牘牋牘 牋牋牋鉦芦 牋迦姶牋逗姶牋牋牋逗姶牘 牋牋鉦旭牘牘 牋牘牋牋朽牘牘. 牋牘牋 牋萎穐牋牘牘牋 牋伍牋牋 牘牋 牋牘牋萎 牋牘牋牘 牋牘牋牋 牋伍牋逗牋ム宛牘牋逗宛牘 牋伍牋牘牋о鮎牋萎娃 牋牋牘牘 牋伍牋牋牘牋む牋牋鉦姶牋逗姶 牋牋牋牘牋牋逗牋牘牋牘牋牋 牋牋牋.
  • 29. The sequences of the maize and tobacco 16 S rRNA genes are 1491 and 1486 nucleotides in length, respectively. They show 96% sequence homology with each other. Similarly, DNA sequence of 23 S rRNA genes from maize and tobacco is 2898 and 2804 nucleotides respectively. The distance between 16 S (end) and the 23 S (start) of rRNA gene is 2408 base pairs in maize and 2080 in tobacco (Table 5.2). On the contrary, the distance among prokaryotic organisms is very less, for example, in E. coli distance is 440 base pairs. Longer distance among higher plants is due to the presence of introns upto 950 base pairs.
  • 30. 牋牘牋牋牋牘牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘 牋牘牋牘 16 S rRNA 牋牋牘牘牋朽牋 牋朽旭牘牋伍牋迦 牋朽旭牘牋伍牋牘 1491 牋牋萎或牋牋 1486 牋牘牘牋牋伍芦牋牘牋牘牘牋÷芦 牋牘 牋牘 牋÷圧牘牋牘 牋牋牋鉦姶牋牋. 牋朽牋萎 牋牋牋牋鉦姶牋逗阿牘牋牘 牋牋牋牋 96% 牋伍牘牋牋鉦姶牘牋 homology 牋牘牋牋逗牋牘. 牋牋牘牋朽或牋о牋牋牘, 牋牘牋牋牋牘牋牋 牋牋萎或牋牋 牋牘 牋牘牋牘 牋牘牋牋÷牋 23 S rRNA 牋牋牘牘牋朽牋 DNA 牋謹牋迦或牋牋 牋朽旭牘牋伍牋牘 2898 牋牋萎或牋牋 2804 牋牘牘牋牋伍芦牋牘牋牘牘牋÷芦 牋牘 牋牋迦或牋牋 牋牋牋牋. RRNA 牋牋牘牘牋朽 牋牘牋牋 16 S (牋牋牋牋逗牋牘) 牋牋萎或牋牋 23 S (牋牘牘牘 牋萎牋牘牋) 牋牋о牘 牋牘牘牋萎 牋牘牋牋牋牘牋牋牋迦 2408 牋牋о鮎牋 牋牋む牋迦 牋牋萎或牋牋 2080 牋牘 牋牘牋牘牋迦 (牋牋牋逗旭牋 5.2) 牋牋о牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋. 牋牘牋牋逗牋 牋朽或牋萎牋牘牋о牋牘, 牋牘牋萎 牋牋萎或牋牘牋牋逗牘 牋牘牋朽牋 牋牋о牘 牋牘牘牋萎 牋牋鉦芦牋 牋む牋牘牋牋朽牘 牋牋牋 牋牋牋, 牋牋牋鉦姐牋萎娃牋牋 E. coli 牋牘牘牋萎 440 牋牘牘牋伍 牋牋む牋. 牋牋о或牋 牋牋逗牋牘牘牋朽牋 牋牋о牘 牋牘牘牋萎 950 牋牘牘牋伍 牋牋む牋 牋朽旭牋牘 牋牋牋牋鉦 牋牘牋 牋牋牋÷牋 牋朽芦牋 牋牋萎牋牋牋む 牋牋牋.
  • 32. - Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) is also known as plastid DNA (ptDNA). - Circular double stranded DNA molecule - Chloroplast genome size ranges 120-217kb with majority of plants fall into 120-160kb. (Pelargonium has a chloroplast genome size 217kb)contain about 100 genes to synthesize proteins - cpDNA regions includes Large Single-Copy (LSC) & Small Single-Copy (SSC) regions, and Inverted Repeats (IRA & IRB). - Conifers and a group of legumes lack Inverted Repeats. Chloroplast genome
  • 34. - Complete chloroplast DNA sequences of four land plants (Nicotiana tabacum, Marchantia polymorpha, Oryza sativa and Epifagus virginiana) were available for comparative study on structure and gene content of chloroplast genomes in 1980s. - At present, the number of complete chloroplast genome sequences is 122 (from 114 different organisms). eg. Arabidopsis thaliana, Coffea arabica, Eucalyptus globulus, Glycine max, Gossypium hirsutum, Helianthus annuus, Lycopersicon esculentum, Nymphaea alba, Phaseolus vulgaris, Pinus koraiensis, Piper cenocladum, Solanum tuberosum, Triticum aestivum, Vitis vinifera, Zea mays etc. Chloroplast genome
  • 35. - cpDNA is a relatively abundant component of plant total DNA, thus facilitating extraction and analysis. - Conservative rate of nucleotide substitution enables to resolve plant phylogenetic relationships at deep levels of evolution. eg. familial level; mono- & dicotyledonous; - Chloroplast protein-coding genes evolve at a rate that is on average fivefold slower than plant nuclear genes. Characteristics of Chloroplast Genome
  • 36. - Strictly maternally inherited in most angiosperms while in conifers, inheritance is paternal. - Chloroplast DNA is passed on from one generation to the next with only an occasional mutation altering the molecule; sexual recombination does not occur. Characteristics of Chloroplast Genome
  • 37. - cpDNA regions can be amplified by means of PCR. - The resulted PCR products may be subjected to RFLP or DNA sequencing. - Common cpDNA regions used in systematic study: rbcL (1400bp), trnL-trnF (250-800bp), atpB- rbcL (1000bp), trnL intron (300bp), matK (2600bp), trnT-trnL (400-800bp), 16S (1400bp), rpoC (3600bp) etc. Molecular Systematics on cpDNA
  • 39. - Restriction site mapping of the entire chloroplast genome. (involve the isolation of chloroplast DNA from the total DNA) Molecular Systematics on cpDNA The whole chloroplast genomes of different Brassica species were digested with SacI
  • 40. - Singular structural rearrangements (e.g. inversions and intron losses). - Loss of intron of rpl2 gene was found in species of order Caryophyllales (cacti, amaranths, carnations, carnivorous plants). Molecular Systematics on cpDNA
  • 41. - On of the most comprehensive phylogenetic study of cpDNA rearrangement involved a 22kb inversion found to be shared by 57 genera representing all tribes of the family Asteraceae (sunflowers), a large plant family with 20,000 species and 1100 genera. - 50kb inversion brought psbA closer to rbcL in legumes. - 25kb inversion brought atpA closer to rbcL in wheat. Molecular Systematics on cpDNA
  • 42. H. nervosa H. dyeri H. dryobalanoides H. beccariana H. pierrei H. latifolia H. mengerawan H. myrtifolia H. ferruginea H. sangal H. nutans H. odorata H. helferi H. apiculata H. wightiana Neobalanocarpus heimii 69 84 89 100 75 5192 Subsection Hopea Subsection Dryobalanoides Subsection Sphaerocarpae Subsection PierreaHopea clade Dryobalanoides clade Outgroup 72-bp deletion in the trnL-trnF H o p e a D r y o b a l a n o i d e s Phylogeny based on the trnL-trnF, trnT-trnL and atpB-rbcL sequences. Upuna borneensis H. subalata 72 96 H. bilitonensis Tree length = 143 CI = 0.8811 RI = 0.8651 H. pubescens