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Genetics 2 Meiosis
Genetics 2 MeiosisRobin Seamon
油
Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces gametes or sex cells with half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cell. It involves two divisions and results in four daughter cells each with a single set of chromosomes. This ensures that offspring will receive one set of chromosomes from each parent, maintaining the chromosome number from generation to generation. The key phases and events of meiosis include homologous chromosome pairing, crossing over, independent assortment of chromosomes into new cells, and two cell divisions that ultimately produce four haploid gametes.Cell Division
Cell DivisionMarco Vincent Y単iguez
油
Cells divide through two main processes: mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis produces two identical daughter cells from one parent cell through the stages of prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. The daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Meiosis produces four non-identical sex cells with half the number of chromosomes through two rounds of division. The first division separates homologous chromosome pairs, and the second separates sister chromatids. This genetic diversity allows for sexual reproduction.Mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis and meiosisHershey Anne Hernaez
油
The cell cycle consists of interphase and the mitosis phase. Interphase includes G1, S, and G2 phases where the cell grows and duplicates its DNA. Mitosis is divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase where the chromosomes and cell contents are separated into two daughter cells. Meiosis includes two cell divisions to produce four haploid cells from one diploid cell. Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes and meiosis II separates sister chromatids.The Cell Cycle and Division
The Cell Cycle and DivisionMelinda MacDonald
油
The cell cycle consists of interphase and the mitotic phase. Interphase includes three stages (G1, S, G2) where the cell grows and duplicates its DNA. The mitotic phase includes mitosis, where the cell nucleus and chromosomes divide, and cytokinesis, where the cell cytoplasm divides to form two daughter cells each with the same genetic material as the original cell. Cell division through the cell cycle enables growth, development, replacement of old/damaged cells, and repair of injuries in multicellular organisms.Histology of Nervous system
Histology of Nervous systemEneutron
油
The document provides information about the nervous system. It discusses the central nervous system including the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord contains gray matter with neurons and white matter with nerve fibers. The brainstem relays signals between the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system, controlling vital functions. The cerebellum coordinates motor control through integration of sensory input. The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain involved in higher functions like thinking, language, and memory. Diagrams and pictures are included to illustrate these structures.The Cell Cycle
The Cell CycleI Wonder Why Science
油
The document describes the cell cycle and different types of cell division. It explains that binary fission is a simple type of cell division used by prokaryotes like bacteria, where the cell duplicates its DNA and divides in two. Eukaryotic cells use more complex mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis has four stages - prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase - where the duplicated chromosomes separate and the cell divides. Cancer results when cells bypass checkpoints and divide uncontrollably through deregulated mitosis.CELL DIVISION
CELL DIVISIONMarilyn Soriano
油
Cellular division occurs through two main types: somatic cell division and reproductive cell division. Somatic cell division, which includes interphase and mitosis, produces genetically identical cells to replace dead/injured cells or add new cells during growth. Reproductive cell division, known as meiosis, reduces the chromosome number by half to produce gametes. The cell cycle consists of interphase, where the cell grows and replicates DNA, and mitosis, where the nucleus and cytoplasm divide. Mitosis includes prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase to distribute chromosomes equally. Cytokinesis then divides the cytoplasm. Cells can also die through programmed cell death (apoptosis) or accidental cell death (necrosisMeiosis and its different stages
Meiosis and its different stagesAsad Afridi
油
The slides contain all about meiosis. in this slides i collected all information about meiosis. which is useful for everyone.
so watch these slides and comment for any problems.
thanks Cell division
Cell divisionBayan Al-Ghadeer
油
The document discusses cell division and the cell cycle. It begins by outlining the key phases of the cell cycle - interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis. Interphase is further broken down into the G1, S, and G2 phases where the cell grows and duplicates its contents. Mitosis is the phase where the cell nucleus divides into two identical nuclei. Cytokinesis then divides the cytoplasm into two daughter cells. The document also discusses DNA structure and replication, noting the double helix structure and enzymes involved in duplicating DNA. Abnormal cell division can lead to diseases like cancer if the cell cycle is not properly controlled.Nerve. ppt
Nerve. pptSukesh Vangeti
油
The document discusses the anatomy and histology of the central nervous system. It describes the different types of neurons, their classification based on structure and function. It also discusses the supporting glial cells like astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia and ependymal cells. It explains the structure and function of synapses and myelin sheath formation in the CNS.Presentation on cell cycle
Presentation on cell cycleKritika Choudhary
油
The cell cycle is the process by which a cell duplicates its contents and divides into two daughter cells. It consists of four main phases - G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase, and M phase. The M phase includes both mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitosis is further divided into prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase where the chromosomes are aligned and separated. Cytokinesis then divides the cell into two daughter cells each with identical genetic material.Cell DIVISION/cycle
Cell DIVISION/cycleAnabelle Montevirgen
油
Infer the significance of cell division.
Differentiate a DNA molecule, a chromosome, and a chromatid.
Characterize the phases of the cell cycle and their control points.
Describe the major events associated with stages of mitosis.
Explain the process of cytokinesis.
Learning Objectives
Describe the role of apoptosis in the life cycle of a cell.
Relate cancer as a result of the malfunction of the cell during the cell cycle.
cell cycle , cell checkpoints , cell cycle regulators 
cell cycle , cell checkpoints , cell cycle regulators Anshikasingh205906
油
here in this presentation you will be studying about cell cycle , cell checkpoints , cell cycle regulators etc .
very informative slides by anshika singh Meiosis
MeiosisKomalSankaran18
油
Meiosis is a two-step cell division process that produces gametes with half the normal number of chromosomes. It consists of Meiosis I, which separates homologous chromosome pairs, and Meiosis II, which separates sister chromatids. This results in four haploid daughter cells from one original diploid cell. The document provides details on the stages of meiosis, including prophase I with chromosome pairing and crossing over, and discusses how meiosis contributes to genetic diversity.Cell Division
Cell DivisionJulie Roberts
油
The document discusses different types of cell division: binary fission, mitosis, and meiosis. Binary fission is how prokaryotic cells divide, splitting their single DNA strand to form two identical daughter cells. Mitosis and meiosis are forms of cell division in eukaryotes. Mitosis produces two identical daughter cells through the phases of interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Meiosis involves two cell divisions and results in four haploid cells with half the normal genetic material.Nervous tissue (Histology)
Nervous tissue (Histology)ozhin araz
油
The document summarizes the histology of neurons and the nervous system. It describes the key parts of neurons including the cell body, axon, and dendrites. It then discusses the different types of neuroglial cells that provide support to neurons in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Finally, it briefly outlines the histological structure and layers of the cerebellar cortex.Cell & Cell Theory.pptx
Cell & Cell Theory.pptxKiranShabbir7
油
All living things are composed of one or more cells. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living things. There are over 200 cell types in the human body, each specialized to perform specific functions like red blood cells transporting oxygen, stem cells differentiating into other cell types, and nerve cells transmitting electrical signals. The document provides examples of key cell types and their functions to support the fundamental principles of cell theory.Cell biology
Cell biologyZoljargalChinbat
油
The document provides an overview of cell biology, including the history and development of cell theory. It discusses key discoveries such as Hooke observing cells in 1665 and van Leuwenhoek observing single-celled organisms in 1673. The three main components of cell theory developed between 1838-1858 - that all organisms are made of cells, cells are the basic unit of life, and cells come from preexisting cells. The document also describes characteristics of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, examples of major cell structures like the nucleus and mitochondria, and differences between plant and animal cells.Mitosis
MitosisJibesh Bhattacharjee
油
Mitosis is the process where a cell divides into two identical daughter cells. It occurs in both plant and animal cells as part of growth and development. In plants, mitotically dividing cells are found in meristems, while in animals they are in dividing embryos and growing tissues. Mitosis maintains the same number and type of chromosomes, allowing genetic information to be identically passed to both daughter cells. It involves several phases: interphase, prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis. Cytokinesis then separates the two daughter cells through a cell plate in plants or cleavage furrow in animals.Nervous system
Nervous systemIshfaq Ahmad
油
The nervous system is made up of nerves and cells that carry messages between the brain, spinal cord, and body. It is divided into the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system controls functions like blood pressure, breathing, hormone levels, and behaviors. It is composed of neurons, neuroglia, and other supporting cells. Neurons communicate via electrical and chemical signals to control bodily functions and respond to internal and external stimuli.Skeletons grade 10
Skeletons grade 10Maphuti Itumeleng Modiba
油
The document discusses different types of skeletons that provide structure and support in animals. There are three main types: hydrostatic skeletons which use fluid pressure, exoskeletons which are external shells, and endoskeletons with internal bones. The human skeleton is then examined in more detail, including its axial skeleton with the skull and vertebral column, and appendicular skeleton with the pectoral and pelvic girdles and limbs. The functions of all skeletons are listed as support, movement, protection, blood cell production, and storage.Meiosis
MeiosisSafder Abbas
油
Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces gametes, such as sperm and egg cells, with half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cell. It involves two rounds of division called Meiosis I and Meiosis II. In Meiosis I, homologous chromosomes pair up and may exchange genetic material through crossing over. The homologous chromosomes then separate, resulting in two haploid cells. Meiosis II then separates the sister chromatids, resulting in a total of four haploid cells each with a unique combination of the parent cell's chromosomes.Cell cycle
Cell cycleSreekanth Nallam
油
The document summarizes the cell cycle and its regulation. It describes the main stages of the cell cycle - interphase consisting of G1, S, and G2 phases and the M phase. Key regulators of the cell cycle include cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinases, and checkpoints like G1, G2, and M that ensure fidelity of DNA replication and chromosome segregation. Dysregulation of these processes can lead to genomic instability and cancer.CELLS- The basic unit of life
CELLS- The basic unit of lifeGugu Msana
油
1. The document discusses the basic unit of life - the cell. It describes key details about plant cells, animal cells, and the history of cell discovery.
2. Specific organelles of the endomembrane system are described in detail, including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles.
3. Other organelles like mitochondria and plastids are also explained briefly, focusing on their structures, locations in the cell, and main functions. A list of references concludes the document.Cell cycle & Cell division
Cell cycle & Cell divisionMohiuddin Masum
油
Cell division occurs through the cell cycle and two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis. The cell cycle is regulated sequence of growth, DNA replication, and cell division. Mitosis produces two daughter cells identical to the parent cell and is used for growth and repair. Meiosis produces gametes through two cell divisions and a reduction in chromosome number. This maintains chromosome number between generations. Meiosis results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cell.Phases Of Mitosis
Phases Of MitosisShaun Bass
油
The document discusses the phases of mitosis. It aims to identify each phase and describe what happens. The four phases are:
Prophase, where chromatin condenses into chromosomes and the nuclear envelope breaks down. Metaphase, where chromosomes line up in the middle. Anaphase, where chromosomes separate and move toward opposite poles. Telophase, where chromosomes decondense and the nuclear envelope reforms.Structure and histology of different types of muscles
Structure and histology of different types of musclesHitesh Parashar
油
PPT includes structure and histology of different types of muscles i.e., smooth, cardiac and skeletal muscles.Mitosis
MitosisSamsuDeen12
油
Mitosis is the process where a cell nucleus divides to form two daughter cells. It occurs in multiple stages: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During interphase, DNA replicates and organelles duplicate. In prophase, chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope breaks down. Metaphase arranges the chromosomes in the center. Anaphase separates the sister chromatids and moves them to opposite poles. Finally, in telophase, the nuclear envelope reforms and cytokinesis divides the cell into two identical daughter cells with identical genetic material.Dna sequencing AND ANALYSIS
Dna sequencing AND ANALYSISayesha sahi
油
Compare and contrast the chemical (Maxam/Gilbert) and chain termination (Sanger) sequencing methods.
List the components and molecular reactions that occur in chain termination sequencing.
Discuss the advantages of dye primer and dye terminator sequencing.
Derive a text DNA sequence from raw sequencing data.
Describe examples of alternative sequencing methods, such as bisulfite sequencing and pyrosequencing.
Maxam/Gilbert chemical sequencing
Sanger chain termination sequencing
Pyrosequencing
Array sequencing
With addition of enzyme (DNA polymerase), the primer is extended until a ddNTP is encountered.
The chain will end with the incorporation of the ddNTP.
With the proper dNTP:ddNTP ratio, the chain will terminate throughout the length of the template.
All terminated chains will end in the ddNTP added to that reaction.
The collection of fragments is a sequencing ladder.
The resulting terminated chains are resolved by electrophoresis.
Fragments from each of the four tubes are placed in four separate gel lanes.
Cycle sequencing is chain termination sequencing performed in a thermal cycler.
Cycle sequencing requires a heat-stable DNA polymerase.
Fluorescent dyes are multicyclic molecules that absorb and emit fluorescent light at specific wavelengths.
Examples are fluorescein and rhodamine derivatives.
For sequencing applications, these molecules can be covalently attached to nucleotides.
In dye primer sequencing, the primer contains fluorescent dyeconjugated nucleotides, labeling the sequencing ladder at the 5 ends of the chains.
In dye terminator sequencing, the fluorescent dye molecules are covalently attached to the dideoxynucleotides, labeling the sequencing ladder at the 3 ends of the chains.
Ramsar Wetlands of pakistan
Ramsar Wetlands of pakistanayesha sahi
油
23rd November 1976: The convention on wetlands came into force for Pakistan
1976: Total wetland surface area 7,800 sq km with 9 wetlands of global significance
2001: Number raised to 16
2013:Among 1,888 Ramsar sites, 19 sites of Pakistan bear global importance
Total surface area of Pakistan Ramsar sites is 1,343,627 hectares
Pakistans 19 sites Internationally recognized by Ramsar Convention (RC) Bureau
2PK009
Astola (Haft Talar) Island, Balochistan
Russels viper (Echis carinatus astolae), is an endemic species and a highly poisonous snake, which is reported only from this Island
Deh Akro-II wetland supports more than 18 species of mammals, 16 species of reptiles, 14 species of fish, and 101 species of birds and regularly supports over 20,000 waterbirds.油The fauna includes waterfowl, crocodiles, otters and fish.
The surrounding hills are the home of Urial, Sindh wild goat, Chinkara gazelle, Wolf, Jackal, Common fox, Pangolin and numerous other birds and reptiles.
The油Indus river dolphin油is one of the world's rarest mammal and most endangered cetaceans. Only about 1,000 of this unique species exist today in the lower reaches of the Indus River in Pakistan. Water pollution, poaching and habitat fragmentation due to dams and irrigation systems are all threatening the dolphin's survival.油 WWF works to油conserve their habitat and has been involved in a number of rescue missions where individual dolphins find themselves trapped in canals
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Cell division
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油
The document discusses cell division and the cell cycle. It begins by outlining the key phases of the cell cycle - interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis. Interphase is further broken down into the G1, S, and G2 phases where the cell grows and duplicates its contents. Mitosis is the phase where the cell nucleus divides into two identical nuclei. Cytokinesis then divides the cytoplasm into two daughter cells. The document also discusses DNA structure and replication, noting the double helix structure and enzymes involved in duplicating DNA. Abnormal cell division can lead to diseases like cancer if the cell cycle is not properly controlled.Nerve. ppt
Nerve. pptSukesh Vangeti
油
The document discusses the anatomy and histology of the central nervous system. It describes the different types of neurons, their classification based on structure and function. It also discusses the supporting glial cells like astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia and ependymal cells. It explains the structure and function of synapses and myelin sheath formation in the CNS.Presentation on cell cycle
Presentation on cell cycleKritika Choudhary
油
The cell cycle is the process by which a cell duplicates its contents and divides into two daughter cells. It consists of four main phases - G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase, and M phase. The M phase includes both mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitosis is further divided into prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase where the chromosomes are aligned and separated. Cytokinesis then divides the cell into two daughter cells each with identical genetic material.Cell DIVISION/cycle
Cell DIVISION/cycleAnabelle Montevirgen
油
Infer the significance of cell division.
Differentiate a DNA molecule, a chromosome, and a chromatid.
Characterize the phases of the cell cycle and their control points.
Describe the major events associated with stages of mitosis.
Explain the process of cytokinesis.
Learning Objectives
Describe the role of apoptosis in the life cycle of a cell.
Relate cancer as a result of the malfunction of the cell during the cell cycle.
cell cycle , cell checkpoints , cell cycle regulators
cell cycle , cell checkpoints , cell cycle regulators Anshikasingh205906
油
here in this presentation you will be studying about cell cycle , cell checkpoints , cell cycle regulators etc .
very informative slides by anshika singh Meiosis
MeiosisKomalSankaran18
油
Meiosis is a two-step cell division process that produces gametes with half the normal number of chromosomes. It consists of Meiosis I, which separates homologous chromosome pairs, and Meiosis II, which separates sister chromatids. This results in four haploid daughter cells from one original diploid cell. The document provides details on the stages of meiosis, including prophase I with chromosome pairing and crossing over, and discusses how meiosis contributes to genetic diversity.Cell Division
Cell DivisionJulie Roberts
油
The document discusses different types of cell division: binary fission, mitosis, and meiosis. Binary fission is how prokaryotic cells divide, splitting their single DNA strand to form two identical daughter cells. Mitosis and meiosis are forms of cell division in eukaryotes. Mitosis produces two identical daughter cells through the phases of interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Meiosis involves two cell divisions and results in four haploid cells with half the normal genetic material.Nervous tissue (Histology)
Nervous tissue (Histology)ozhin araz
油
The document summarizes the histology of neurons and the nervous system. It describes the key parts of neurons including the cell body, axon, and dendrites. It then discusses the different types of neuroglial cells that provide support to neurons in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Finally, it briefly outlines the histological structure and layers of the cerebellar cortex.Cell & Cell Theory.pptx
Cell & Cell Theory.pptxKiranShabbir7
油
All living things are composed of one or more cells. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living things. There are over 200 cell types in the human body, each specialized to perform specific functions like red blood cells transporting oxygen, stem cells differentiating into other cell types, and nerve cells transmitting electrical signals. The document provides examples of key cell types and their functions to support the fundamental principles of cell theory.Cell biology
Cell biologyZoljargalChinbat
油
The document provides an overview of cell biology, including the history and development of cell theory. It discusses key discoveries such as Hooke observing cells in 1665 and van Leuwenhoek observing single-celled organisms in 1673. The three main components of cell theory developed between 1838-1858 - that all organisms are made of cells, cells are the basic unit of life, and cells come from preexisting cells. The document also describes characteristics of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, examples of major cell structures like the nucleus and mitochondria, and differences between plant and animal cells.Mitosis
MitosisJibesh Bhattacharjee
油
Mitosis is the process where a cell divides into two identical daughter cells. It occurs in both plant and animal cells as part of growth and development. In plants, mitotically dividing cells are found in meristems, while in animals they are in dividing embryos and growing tissues. Mitosis maintains the same number and type of chromosomes, allowing genetic information to be identically passed to both daughter cells. It involves several phases: interphase, prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis. Cytokinesis then separates the two daughter cells through a cell plate in plants or cleavage furrow in animals.Nervous system
Nervous systemIshfaq Ahmad
油
The nervous system is made up of nerves and cells that carry messages between the brain, spinal cord, and body. It is divided into the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system controls functions like blood pressure, breathing, hormone levels, and behaviors. It is composed of neurons, neuroglia, and other supporting cells. Neurons communicate via electrical and chemical signals to control bodily functions and respond to internal and external stimuli.Skeletons grade 10
Skeletons grade 10Maphuti Itumeleng Modiba
油
The document discusses different types of skeletons that provide structure and support in animals. There are three main types: hydrostatic skeletons which use fluid pressure, exoskeletons which are external shells, and endoskeletons with internal bones. The human skeleton is then examined in more detail, including its axial skeleton with the skull and vertebral column, and appendicular skeleton with the pectoral and pelvic girdles and limbs. The functions of all skeletons are listed as support, movement, protection, blood cell production, and storage.Meiosis
MeiosisSafder Abbas
油
Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces gametes, such as sperm and egg cells, with half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cell. It involves two rounds of division called Meiosis I and Meiosis II. In Meiosis I, homologous chromosomes pair up and may exchange genetic material through crossing over. The homologous chromosomes then separate, resulting in two haploid cells. Meiosis II then separates the sister chromatids, resulting in a total of four haploid cells each with a unique combination of the parent cell's chromosomes.Cell cycle
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油
The document summarizes the cell cycle and its regulation. It describes the main stages of the cell cycle - interphase consisting of G1, S, and G2 phases and the M phase. Key regulators of the cell cycle include cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinases, and checkpoints like G1, G2, and M that ensure fidelity of DNA replication and chromosome segregation. Dysregulation of these processes can lead to genomic instability and cancer.CELLS- The basic unit of life
CELLS- The basic unit of lifeGugu Msana
油
1. The document discusses the basic unit of life - the cell. It describes key details about plant cells, animal cells, and the history of cell discovery.
2. Specific organelles of the endomembrane system are described in detail, including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles.
3. Other organelles like mitochondria and plastids are also explained briefly, focusing on their structures, locations in the cell, and main functions. A list of references concludes the document.Cell cycle & Cell division
Cell cycle & Cell divisionMohiuddin Masum
油
Cell division occurs through the cell cycle and two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis. The cell cycle is regulated sequence of growth, DNA replication, and cell division. Mitosis produces two daughter cells identical to the parent cell and is used for growth and repair. Meiosis produces gametes through two cell divisions and a reduction in chromosome number. This maintains chromosome number between generations. Meiosis results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cell.Phases Of Mitosis
Phases Of MitosisShaun Bass
油
The document discusses the phases of mitosis. It aims to identify each phase and describe what happens. The four phases are:
Prophase, where chromatin condenses into chromosomes and the nuclear envelope breaks down. Metaphase, where chromosomes line up in the middle. Anaphase, where chromosomes separate and move toward opposite poles. Telophase, where chromosomes decondense and the nuclear envelope reforms.Structure and histology of different types of muscles
Structure and histology of different types of musclesHitesh Parashar
油
PPT includes structure and histology of different types of muscles i.e., smooth, cardiac and skeletal muscles.Mitosis
MitosisSamsuDeen12
油
Mitosis is the process where a cell nucleus divides to form two daughter cells. It occurs in multiple stages: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During interphase, DNA replicates and organelles duplicate. In prophase, chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope breaks down. Metaphase arranges the chromosomes in the center. Anaphase separates the sister chromatids and moves them to opposite poles. Finally, in telophase, the nuclear envelope reforms and cytokinesis divides the cell into two identical daughter cells with identical genetic material.More from ayesha sahi (8)
Dna sequencing AND ANALYSIS
Dna sequencing AND ANALYSISayesha sahi
油
Compare and contrast the chemical (Maxam/Gilbert) and chain termination (Sanger) sequencing methods.
List the components and molecular reactions that occur in chain termination sequencing.
Discuss the advantages of dye primer and dye terminator sequencing.
Derive a text DNA sequence from raw sequencing data.
Describe examples of alternative sequencing methods, such as bisulfite sequencing and pyrosequencing.
Maxam/Gilbert chemical sequencing
Sanger chain termination sequencing
Pyrosequencing
Array sequencing
With addition of enzyme (DNA polymerase), the primer is extended until a ddNTP is encountered.
The chain will end with the incorporation of the ddNTP.
With the proper dNTP:ddNTP ratio, the chain will terminate throughout the length of the template.
All terminated chains will end in the ddNTP added to that reaction.
The collection of fragments is a sequencing ladder.
The resulting terminated chains are resolved by electrophoresis.
Fragments from each of the four tubes are placed in four separate gel lanes.
Cycle sequencing is chain termination sequencing performed in a thermal cycler.
Cycle sequencing requires a heat-stable DNA polymerase.
Fluorescent dyes are multicyclic molecules that absorb and emit fluorescent light at specific wavelengths.
Examples are fluorescein and rhodamine derivatives.
For sequencing applications, these molecules can be covalently attached to nucleotides.
In dye primer sequencing, the primer contains fluorescent dyeconjugated nucleotides, labeling the sequencing ladder at the 5 ends of the chains.
In dye terminator sequencing, the fluorescent dye molecules are covalently attached to the dideoxynucleotides, labeling the sequencing ladder at the 3 ends of the chains.
Ramsar Wetlands of pakistan
Ramsar Wetlands of pakistanayesha sahi
油
23rd November 1976: The convention on wetlands came into force for Pakistan
1976: Total wetland surface area 7,800 sq km with 9 wetlands of global significance
2001: Number raised to 16
2013:Among 1,888 Ramsar sites, 19 sites of Pakistan bear global importance
Total surface area of Pakistan Ramsar sites is 1,343,627 hectares
Pakistans 19 sites Internationally recognized by Ramsar Convention (RC) Bureau
2PK009
Astola (Haft Talar) Island, Balochistan
Russels viper (Echis carinatus astolae), is an endemic species and a highly poisonous snake, which is reported only from this Island
Deh Akro-II wetland supports more than 18 species of mammals, 16 species of reptiles, 14 species of fish, and 101 species of birds and regularly supports over 20,000 waterbirds.油The fauna includes waterfowl, crocodiles, otters and fish.
The surrounding hills are the home of Urial, Sindh wild goat, Chinkara gazelle, Wolf, Jackal, Common fox, Pangolin and numerous other birds and reptiles.
The油Indus river dolphin油is one of the world's rarest mammal and most endangered cetaceans. Only about 1,000 of this unique species exist today in the lower reaches of the Indus River in Pakistan. Water pollution, poaching and habitat fragmentation due to dams and irrigation systems are all threatening the dolphin's survival.油 WWF works to油conserve their habitat and has been involved in a number of rescue missions where individual dolphins find themselves trapped in canals
The amazing biological facts
The amazing biological factsayesha sahi
油
The amazing biological facts
What are facts
Difference between facts and reality
Difference between facts and opinion
Humans mysterious facts
油Scary plants facts
Biology of Quran
Astonishing emotional facts
References
The reality, state of affairs, or relations that make statements true. Its a fact that 1+1=2, or its a fact that john has a headache. If the statements are true, then corresponding facts exist that make them true. There are no facts that dont exist. If something is a fact, then it exists.
Saccadic masking:
Also known as (visual)油saccadic suppression, is the phenomenon in visual perception where the brain selectively blocks visual processing during eye movements in such a way that neither the motion of the eye油nor the gap in visual perception is noticeable to the viewer.
Saccadic masking specifically refers to the fact that our visual system is capable of blanking out or masking the perception of the saccadic motion of the eyes; in simpler terms, youre not aware of seeing the motion blur or other clues that your eyes are constantly making very rapid small movements, called油saccades.
The term DNA is an abbreviation of the genetic material in living things. The beginning of the science of genetics dates back to genetic laws drawn up by the scientist, the Austrian monk Johann Gregor Mendel in 1865. The date, a turning point in the history of science, is referred to in verse 65 of Surat al-Kahf, or verse 18:65.
In Surat al-Kahf, which refers to DNA and the year 1865 when the science of genetics began, DNA is repeated 7 times, as is RNA (the Arabic letters Ra-Nun-Alif).
The letters D-N-A appear side by side three times in this verse, in a most incomparable manner. In no other verse of the Quran do the letters DNA appear consecutively so often.油The number of this exceptional verse in which the term DNA appears so strikingly is 18:65.
Snapdragons Make Cute Flowers, But When They Die They Turn Into Creepy Skulls
Snapdragon flowers are beautiful when in bloom, but when the seed pods dry, something more sinister appears.
The dried seed pods clearly resemble tiny skulls
These skulls are oddly human-looking
Ancient cultures once thought snapdragons held supernatural powers
The tiny skulls were believed to protect against sorcery, witchcraft, and curses
Emotion is typically defined as a response to stimuli that involves physiological changes (increased pulse rate, increased body temperature, activity of certain glands, increased or decreased breathing rate), which motivate a person to act.
Darwins concept
Darwins conceptayesha sahi
油
Darwins concept
He was born February 12th 1809
Darwin developed the biological theory of evolution that explains how modern organisms evolved over long periods of time through descent from common ancestors.
In 1831, he began a 5 year voyage on the HMS Beagle that would change his life.
Darwin thought about the patterns hed seen on his voyage
He realized that there were many similarities between the animals hed seen
There was evidence that suggested that species were not fixed and that they could change by some natural process
Proposed that the use or disuse of organs caused organisms to gain or lose traits over time.
These new characteristics could be passed on to the next generation.
Lamarcks hypotheses were incorrect in many ways
However, Lamarck was one of the first to:
Suggest that species are not fixed
Explain that evolution uses natural processes
Recognize that there is a link between an organisms environment and its body structures
Lamarcks work paved the way for later biologists, including Darwin
In 1798, Thomas Malthus noticed that people were being born faster than people were dying.
How this helped Darwin
He reasoned that what Malthus proposed for human populations also applied to all living things.
Struggle for Existence
From Malthus theory of supply and demand, Darwin reasoned that if more individuals are produced than can survive, they will have to compete for food, living space and other necessities of life
Darwin described this as the struggle for existence
Individuals have natural variations among their inheritable traits
Fast predators capture prey more efficiently
Prey that are faster, better camouflaged or better protected avoid being caught.
Any heritable characteristic that increases an organisms ability to survive and reproduce in its environment is called an adaptation
Ability to survive and reproduce in a specific environment is called FITNESS
Fitness is a result of adaptation
Good adaptations allow organisms to survive and are passed on to their offspring.
Good fitness: reproduce
Low fitness: few offspring/extinctionChromosomal basis of inheritance
Chromosomal basis of inheritanceayesha sahi
油
Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
Be familiar with patterns of inheritance for autosomal and sex linked genes
Understand the concept of Linked Genes
Understand how traits affected by incomplete dominance and codominance differ from autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive traits
Understand how nondisjunction of chromosomes can lead to disorders.
Linked genes: are those that reside on the same chromosome and tend to be inherited together
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes
Autosomal genes reside on the autosomal chromosomes (pairs 1-22)
Sex-linked genes are found on the sex chromosomes
(pair 23, usually on the X)
Autosomal genes are usually represented by a pair of alleles
The phenotype of the gene reflects the dominant or recessive relationship of the alleles.
Most autosomal genetic diseases are autosomal recessive meaning the individual need to be homozygous recessive to exhibit the condition
(example: cystic fibrosis) Production of abnormmaly thick mucus. Leading to the blockage of panreatic duct, intestines and respiratory infection.
Huntingtons disease is an autosomal dominant disorder meaning that is a single Huntingtons allele is inherited, the individual will have the disease.
Some alleles do not show a dominance hierarchy
Incomplete dominance: the phenotype of a heterozygous genotype is intermediate in appearance
Codominance: each allele in the genotype for a particular gene will be expressed in the phenotype
Males and females differ in their sex chromosome combination
(females XX; males XY)
Because the X contains genes and the Y does not, inheritance patterns of sex-linked genes vary between the sexes
recessive traits more prevalent in males
Genetic disorders can also occur due to errors in the number of inherited chromosomes
This condition arises through a problem that occurs during meiosis
Although female mammals, including humans, inherit two X chromosomes, one X chromosome in each cell becomes almost completely inactivated during embryonic development.
Barr body
Nondisjunction:
Leads to aneuploidy:
Aneuploidy: is the condition of having less than or more than the normal diploid number of chromosomes, and is the most frequently observed type of cytogenetic abnormality.
Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes during sexual life cycles.
Morgan traced a gene to a specific chromosome.
Sex-linked genes have unique patterns of inheritance.
Alterations of chromosome numbers or structure cause some genetic disorders.
Linked genes tend to be inherited together because they are located on the same chromosome.
Independent assortment of chromosomes and crossing over produce genetic variation (recombinants)
Geneticists can use recombination data to map a chromosomes genetic loci.
Chromosomal basis for sex is dependent upon the organism.
Beta oxidation
Beta oxidationayesha sahi
油
Beta-oxidation油is the catabolic process by which fatty acid molecules are broken down in the cytosol in prokaryotes and in the mitochondria in eukaryotes to generate acetyl-coa, which enters the citric acid cycle, and NADH and FADH2, which are co-enzymes used in the electron transport .
Tryglycerides having one glycerol and three fatty acids .
Glycerol and fatty acids are separated with the help of enzyme lipase .
Free fatty acids can enter into the blood stream for metabolism .
There are two tissues in the body which can not metabolise it are RBCs and Brain(nervous tissue) which do not contain mitochondria.
Step 1:
Once the triglycerides are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids they must be activated before they can enter into the mitochondria and proceed on with beta-oxidation. This is done by Acyl-CoA synthetase to yield fatty acyl-CoA.
After the fatty acid has been acylated it is now ready to enter into the mitochondria.
Step 3:
There are two carrier proteins (Carnitine acyltransferase I and II),
Step 4:
Once inside the mitochondria the fatty acyl-CoA can enter into beta-oxidation
Oxidation: A fatty acyl-CoA is oxidized by Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase to yield a trans alkene. This is done with the aid of an [FAD] prosthetic group.
Hydration:
The trans alkene is then hydrated with the help of Enoyl-CoA hydratase.
The alcohol of the hydroxyacly-CoA is then oxidized by NAD+ to a carbonyl with the help of Hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase.
Finally acetyl-CoA is cleaved off with the help of Thiolase to yield an Acyl-CoA that is two carbons shorter than before. The cleaved acetyl-CoA can then enter into the TCA and ETC because it is already within the mitochondria.
Conclusions :
Fatty acid 硫-oxidation is major metabolic pathway that is responsible for the mitochondrial breakdown of long-chain acyl-CoA to acetyl-CoA. This process involves many steps that are regulated at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional level
Structure of muscle contraction
Structure of muscle contractionayesha sahi
油
Muscle contraction油is the activation of tension-generating sites within油muscle油fibers.
Muscles油are composed of two major protein filaments: a thick filament composed of the protein myosin and a thin filament composed of the protein actin.油Muscle contraction油occurs when these filaments slide over one another in a series of repetitive events.
Components of muscle contraction:
Sarcomere
Actin
Myosin
Z-bands
I-bands
A-band
H-zone
The油thick filaments油and the油thin filaments油within油myofibrils油overlap in a structured way, forming units called油sarcomeres
The 'H zone' is at the centre of the油A band油of each油sarcomere. As shown below, this is the region in which there are only thick filaments, and no thin filaments
Sarcomere Bands :
A-band
A band' is a relatively darker area within the sarcomere that extends along the total length of the thick filaments
The 'I band' is the region between adjacent油A bands, in which there are only油thin filaments, and no油thick filaments.油
From all the above disscussion we can say that muscle contraction have some major components like mayosin and actin. Which form the bands on the sarcomere by interdigitating..
Parental care in amphibians and reptiles
Parental care in amphibians and reptilesayesha sahi
油
Any form of parental behavior that appears likely to increase the fitness of the parents offspring.
Parents of some animals go to great lengths to increase their offsprings survival prospects by protecting them from predators, food shortages, desiccation, and a range of other environmental hazards.
First off all they decide the oviposition site.
Any place where small puddles of still water form can provide a suitable nesting site. Sites range from potholes, tapir tracks, and large leaves to human made ditches, road ruts, and even plastic bowls
Rheobatrachus females brooded tadpoles in their stomachs, and the young emerged from the females
In case of moor frogs, males stay to guard the clutch. They attack anyone who
approaches it! They do not leave the post until tadpoles hatch. Only then, starving fathers
go to land and may eat well.
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