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DATA NETWORKING
A Computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected
to each other to share information and resources
Electronic removing of data from one place to another
is called data networking
In hard disk data is stored in bytes. But data
travelling through wire are in bits

TYPES OF NETWORK
When 2 or more than 2 computers or communicating devices which are in a
room in a floor ,in a building or in a campus if connected are said to be
connected in a LAN
1. Lan should be capable of providing high speed, high bandwidth, high capacity
comunication
LAN
Characteristics of lan
2. Owner of the premises is the owner of LAN , to connect 2 devices on LAN we
don’t lease link from service provider.
3. Size of your campus defines size of your LAN. Largest LAN is campus wide LAN

TYPES OF NETWORK
8 BIT = 1 BYTE
Characteristics of lan
0 = 0V
1 = 5V
Binary
1000 Byte = 1K Byte

TYPES OF NETWORK
Desperate architecture
PBX
MCU

TYPES OF NETWORK
Next generation architecture

QUALITY OF SERVICE
CLASSIFICATION
Ip has the capability to mark the packet to identify that which service has
voice ,which service has video and which service has data
Services are of three types audio , video, data.
prioritization
It classify that which packet voice ,video ,data will go first through wire.

QUALITY OF SERVICE
In real time Service quality of experience is be good. If there is no :-
Delay(Latency) – If there long difference between 2 voice communication
Jitter – Sometimes sound is receive slower and sometime the sound is receive faster
Drop – Packet is drop and perfect packet is not recevied

QUALITY OF SERVICE
VOICE PACKET
Voice is a delay sensitive means voice do not allow delay
Voice packet consider 1/10,000 drops
and delay = best < 50 ms
telco < 150 ms
Internet < 200 ms
If drop happen in Ip voice ,the voice concealment program adjust the drop
packet by taking the before and after packet

QUALITY OF SERVICE
data packet
Video is a drop sensitive means voice do not allow drop
Allowed drop is 1/10,0000
Allowed delay is < 200 ms
Data is insensitive . It allowed both drop and delay
Video packet

TYPES OF NETWORK
If 2 or more than 2 computers or communicating devices or network which
are geographically separated but within a same metro city if connected are
said to be connected on MAN
If 2 or more than 2 computers or communicating devices or network which are
geographically separated but not within a same metro city if connected are
said to be connected on MAN
MAN
WAN

TYPES OF NETWORK
1. MAN and WAN should be capable of Providing high to moderate bandwidth
connectivity where limiting factor is cost.
Characteristics of man and wan
2. Owner of premisis is the owner of MAN and WAN we leased link from service
provider.
3. Within campus LAN . Beyond campus but within metrocity is MAN and Beyond
metrocity WAN

PRIVATE NETWORK
LAN, MAN and WAN are private network. Any Internet is a types of Public
network.
IANA (Internet assigned numbers Authority) provide public IP address as
well as public IP
IP range is (0.0.0.0 ------------------------------------ 255.255.255.255
Private IP range is (10.0.0.0 -------------------- 10.255.255.255)
(172.16.0.0 ------------------172.31.255.255)
(192.168.0.0 --------------------
192.168.255.255)

SERIAL TECHNOLOGY
1. Serial technology works in open environment.
2. Serial technology works for longer distance connectivity
3. Serial Technology takes a chunk of data and line drives over a longer distance
4. Line drives means superimposing of signal over high intensity signal.
5. To avoid synchronization error serial technology use control signal (cts,rts,xoff)

ETHERNET TECHNOLOGY
1. Ethernet technology works in closed environment.
2. Ethernet technology works for shorter distance connectivity
3. Ethernet technology provides high speed, high bandwidth connectivity at low cost.
4. There is no additional set of control signal use in Ethernet technology.

COMMUNICATION TYPES
There are three types of communication
Unicast: If data is sent on an individual IP or mac.
Multicast: If data is sent on group IP or mac.
Broad cast: If data is sent all IP or mac.

PING
Ping sends ICMP echo packet to get network layer status.
Ping is also used for following:-
To check connectivity
Ping: ping is a tool or application of ip upper layer protocol stack that is
used to get network layer /ip layer /layer3 status.
To calculate Latency(delays)
To verify Link quality(drops)
Local host Universal loopback address: 127.0.0.1

IP ADDRESS
Ip address without mask is just a set of number. It cannot be defined without
its mask.
Mask tells us how many bits are on network side
10.0.0.0 DECIMAL
00001010.00000000.00000000.00000000 BINARY
10.0.0.0 /16 DECIMAL
Network
bits
Host
bits

IP ADDRESS
10.0.0.0 /24  Prefix mask
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000  Netmask
/8 = 255.0.0.0
/16 = 255.255.0.0
/24 = 255.255.255.0
/32 = 255.255.255.255

SUBNETTING
In this process we divide 1 single Network into multiple smaller networks.
Subnetting helps in minimizing the wastage of IP address
Account - 50 hosts ---- 192.168.1.0 = 256-50 =206
Market - 50 hosts ---- 192.168.3.0 = 256-50 =206
Sales - 50 hosts ---- 192.168.4.0 = 256-50 =206
20
200.1.1.0 = 256 host

SUBNETTING
1. 50 hosts
Class C
Step 1: Find total valid host bits = 2^h (h=required host bits)
2^6 = 64
64 – 2 =62=valid hosts (2 ip are reserve for network and broadcast address)
Step 2: Converted Network bits = n
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 ( where 0 is host bit and 1 is network bit)
n= Total host bits – required host bits
8 – 6 =2
total network bits = 24+2=26=subnetmask now = /26
Step 3: Total subnets = 2^n = 2^2 = 4.
2^0 = 1
2^1 = 2
2^2 = 4
2^3 = 8
2^4 = 16
2^5 = 32
2^6 = 64
192.168.1.0 /24

SUBNETTING
1. 50 hosts
Class C
Step 4: Ranges 192.168.1.0 /26 192.168.1.63 /26
192.168.1.64 /26 192.168.1.127 /26
192.168.1.128 /26 192.168.1.191 /26
192.168.1.192 /26 192.168.1.255 /26
2^0 = 1
2^1 = 2
2^2 = 4
2^3 = 8
2^4 = 16
2^5 = 32
2^6 = 64

SUBNETTING
2^0 = 1
2^1 = 2
2^2 = 4
2^3 = 8
2^4 = 16
2^5 = 32
2^6 = 64
255.255.255.192
192.168.1.10 /24
192.168.1.100 /24
192.168.1.10 /26
192.168.1.100 /26
Are the in same network or different network.
192.168.1.0 ----192.168.63 /26
192.168.1.64 ----192.168.127 /26
0 ---- 255 total host
There network id is 0 broadcast id is 255 that’s
why they are in same network

SUBNETTING
2^0 = 1
2^1 = 2
2^2 = 4
2^3 = 8
2^4 = 16
2^5 = 32
2^6 = 64
50 hosts
30 hosts
20 hosts
10 hosts
VLSM
Total valid hosts = 2^6=64-2= 62
N.N.N.00000000
Total network bits = 24+converted network bits(8-6)
= 24+2 = /26
192.168.1.0 /26 ----- 192.168.1.63 /26
192.168.1.64 /27 ----- 192.168.1.95 /27
192.168.1.96 /27 ----- 192.168.1.127 /27
192.168.1.128 /28 --- 192.168.1.143 /28
For 50 host

SWITCH
Switch is an Intelligent device. As soon as switch receives a frame on its
Port , it will read MAC address refer MAC Table and take forwarding decision.
MAC Address is a L2 address , MAC Table is a L2 Table hence Switch is a L2 device.
On receiving frame on its port , Switch will open L2 information read Destination
MAC address refer MAC table and forward the frame to relevant port only and not to all
Other ports.

SWITCH
MAC Table can be populated in 2 ways.
1.Admin can make static MAC entry in MAC table.
2.Switch can do self learning of MAC address in MAC table when a frame traverse switch.
Because of this MAC Table size become huge.
Huge make table has 3 issues.
1.High memory Utilization
2.High C.P.U utilization due to high processing
3.Frame forwarding delay.

SWITCH
To over come these issues following solution were created
1. Cisco defined a limit of 4096 MAC entries in its MAC Table.
2. Any MAC entry in MAC Table that is not used for 5 min will be consider as stale
and removed from MAC table.
When a switch receive a broadcast frame on its port. Switch will make
multiple copies of that frame and forward to all other ports. And not to
that port from which the frame come.
When sender and receiver are on same port switch will discard that frame.
Switch switches between the ports not within the port.

TCP/UDP
TRANSMISSION
CONTROL PROTOCOL
(TCP)
USER DATAGRAM
PROTOCOL (UDP)
TCP is a connection-
oriented protocol.
Connection-
orientation means
that the
communicating
devices should
establish a
connection before
transmitting data and
should close the
connection after
transmitting the data.
UDP is the Datagram
oriented protocol.
This is because there
is no overhead for
opening a connection,
maintaining a
connection, and
terminating a
connection. UDP is
efficient for broadcast
and multicast type of
network transmission.
TCP is reliable as it
guarantees delivery of
data to the destination
router.
The delivery of data to
the destination cannot
be guaranteed in UDP.
TCP provides
extensive error
checking
mechanisms. It is
because it provides
flow control and
acknowledgment of
data.
UDP has only the
basic error checking
mechanism using
checksums.
TCP is comparatively slower than
UDP.a
UDP is faster, simpler and more
efficient than TCP.
Retransmission of lost packets is
possible in TCP, but not in UDP.
There is no retransmission of lost
packets in User Datagram Protocol
(UDP).
TCP has a (20-80) bytes variable
length header.
UDP has a 8 bytes fixed length
header.
TCP is heavy-weight. UDP is lightweight.
TCP doesn’t supports Broadcasting. UDP supports Broadcasting.
TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL
(TCP)
USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)

ROUTER
Router is an intelligent device. As soon as router receive a packet on
its port it will check destination IP refer routing table and take
forwarding decision.
IP address is layer 3 address routing table is a layer 3 table hence
router is a l3 device.

ROUTER
On receiving a packet on port router will open layer 3 information read destination IP
refer routing table and forward the packet only if it has a route to reach the network
or else discard it.
Because router refers routing table to take forwarding decision hence routing table
should be populated with routes. routing table can be populated in three ways:-
*Directly connected routes will automatically reflect in routers routing table .
*Administrator can make static route entry in router routing table
*Dynamic routing protocol can learn route dynamically in router routing table.

ROUTER
Switch switches within the subnet router routes between the network because router
routes between the network hence every port of router should be in different network
no 2 ports of router can belong to same subnet.
Router will never forward a broadcast received on it ports to other ports, router has
been created to break the broad cast domain.
Every port of router is member of separate collision domain, similarly every port of
router is member of separate broadcast domain. hence router is a multiple
collision/broadcast domain device

ROUTED VS ROUTING
PROTOCOL
Routed Protocols:
IP v4/ IP v6 are called Routed Protocols. In these forwarding is on the basis of IP
address.
Carry user information.
Each router making independent decision in determining path
Routing Protocols:
Exapmples: EIGRP,OSPF,RIP,ISIS,BGP,ETC
Communicate information about networks.
Determine the best route between networks.

STATIC ROUTE
Administrator manually enters route
Manual update required when a topology changes
ISSUe:- if there is topology change manually change the route.
AD value is 1
metric is 0
Floating static route AD value is other that 0
IP route destination network mask nexthope ip address

LINK STATE RP
1.Updates are triggered they are not periodic.
2.Updates are incremental, entire routing table is not send as an update
3.Update are multicasted they are not broadcasted
4.Update are sent to the group and not just connected neighbors.
L.S Router send details like SPF cost,SPF tree/table as part of their update which
Helps routers build end-to-end visibility of entire network all its paths and their
Costs in form of topology table (LSDB)
5.Algorithm used is SPF
6.Routers have E2E visibility

DISTANCE VECTOR RP
1.Updates are periodic sent every 30/90 sec.
2.Entire routing table is sent as an update.
3.Update are broadcasted .
4.Update are sent to the directly connected neighbours only.
5.Distance Vector router don’t have end-to-end visibility of entire network.
6.They are also called as Routing by Rumors.

HYBRID RP
1.Share attributes of both distance-vector and link-state routing.
2.Entire operations are pulled from Link state.
3.Configuration Simplicity is taken from distance vector .
4.Eigrp Belongs to this Category

CLASSFULL AND CLASSLESS
ADDRESS
Classfull address is address with default mask 10.10.10.0 /8.
Classless address is address with any mask other than default mask.

CLASSFULL AND CLASSLESS
ROUTING PROTOCOL

EIGRP RP
1.EIGRP is a classless Routing Protocol.
2.EIGRP is advanced distance vector routing protocol.
3.EIGRP is a enhancement of IGRP.
4.IT is a Cisco Proprietary Protocol, but its codes are open for general public use.
5.Class less Routing Protocol.
6.Best path selection DUA(dual diffusion algo).
7. Metric IGRP*256
8.AD value 90-internal, 170-external, 5-summary

WILD CARD MASK
NET MASK : 20.20.20.0 255.255.255.0
WILD CARD MASK: 20.20.20.0 0.0.0.255
It tells no. of hosts

K-value
K Values Metric components
K1 Bandwidth
K2 Load
K3 Delay
K4 Reliability
K5 MTU
K Values
EIGRP may use five metric components to select the best route for routing table.
These are Bandwidth, Load, Delay, Reliability and MTU. By default EIGRP uses only
two components; Bandwidth and delay. With K-Values we can control which
components should be used in route metric calculation. For five metric components we
have five K values.

EIGRP NEIGHBORSHIP
RULE
EIGRP Router doesn’t trust anyone blindly. It checks following configuration values to
insure that requesting router is eligible to become his neighbor or not.
•Active Hello packets
•AS Number
•K-Values
EIGRP selects best path at the same time when it select next best path.
Best path is called as successor.
Next best path is called as feasible successor.
Topology table, Neighbor table, routing table

EIGRP PACKETS
•Hello
•Update
•Query
•Reply
•ACK (Acknowledgement)
A packet consists of control information and user data
(e.g. source and destination network addresses , error detection codes, or
sequencing information)
2 types of packet control packet and data packet

OSPF ROUTING PROTOCOL
1.OSPF is a link state routing protocol.
2.Classless routing protocol.
3.AD value = 110.
4. Dijkstra's Shortest Path First algorithm.
5.Class less Routing Protocol.
6.Best path selection criteria bandwidth.
7. Metric cost

DHCP
DHCP stands for dynamic host configuration protocol and is a network protocol used on IP
networks where a DHCP server automatically assigns an IP address and other information to
each host on the network so they can communicate efficiently with other endpoints.

NATING
Network Address Translation (NAT) is a process in which one or more local IP
address is translated into one or more Global IP address and vice versa in order
to provide Internet access to the local hosts. NAT generally operates on router or
firewall.

NATING
1. Static NAT –
In this, a single private IP address is mapped with single Public IP address,
i.e., a private IP address is translated to a public IP address. It is used in Web
hosting.
2. Dynamic NAT –
In this type of NAT, multiple private IP address are mapped to a pool of
public IP address . It is used when we know the number of fixed users wants
to access the Internet at a given point of time.

NATING
3. Port Address Translation (PAT) –
This is also known as NAT overload. In this, many local (private) IP addresses can be
translated to single public IP address. Port numbers are used to distinguish the traffic,
i.e., which traffic belongs to which IP address. This is most frequently used as it is cost
effective as thousands of users can be connected to the Internet by using only one real
global (public) IP address

ACCESS-LIST
ACL features –
1. The set of rules defined are matched serial wise i.e matching starts with the first line, then
2nd, then 3rd and so on.
2. The packets are matched only until it matches the rule. Once a rule is matched then no
further comparison takes place and that rule will be performed.
3. There is an implicit deny at the end of every ACL, i.e., if no condition or rule matches then
the packet will be discarded.
Access-list (ACL) is a set of rules defined for controlling the network traffic and
reducing network attack. ACLs are used to filter traffic based on the set of rules
defined for the incoming or out going of the network.

ACCESS-LIST
Types of ACL –
There are two main different types of Access-list namely:
1.Standard Access-list – These are the Access-list which are made using the source
IP address only. These ACLs permit or deny the entire protocol suite. They don’t
distinguish between the IP traffic such as TCP, UDP, Https etc. By using numbers 1-
99 or 1300-1999, router will understand it as a standard ACL and the specified
address as source IP address.
2.Extended Access-list – These are the ACL which uses both source and
destination IP address. In these type of ACL, we can also mention which IP traffic
should be allowed or denied. These use range 100-199 and 2000-2699.

IPV6
An IPv6 address is a 128-bit alphanumeric value that identifies an endpoint
device in an Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) network. IPv6 is the successor to a
previous addressing infrastructure, IPv4, which had limitations IPv6 was
designed to overcome
Format of an IPv6 address
In precise terms, an IPv6 address is 128 bits long and is arranged in eight groups, each of
which is 16 bits. Each group is expressed as four hexadecimal digits and the groups are
separated by colons.
An example of a full IPv6 address could be:
FE80:CD00:0000:0CDE:1257:0000:211E:729C

IPV6
Types of IPv6 addresses
There are different types and formats of IPv6 addresses
Global unicast. These addresses are routable on the internet and start with "2001:" as the prefix
group. Global unicast addresses are the equivalent of IPv4 public addresses.
•Unicast address. Used to identify the interface of an individual node.
•Anycast address. Used to identify a group of interfaces on different nodes.
•Multicast address. An address used to define multicast Multicasts are used to send a single packet to
multiple destinations at one time.
•Link local addresses. One of the two internal address types that are not routed on the internet. Link
local addresses are used inside an internal network, are self-assigned and start with "fe80:" as the
prefix group.
•Unique local addresses. This is the other type of internal address that is not routed on the internet.
Unique local addresses are equivalent to the IPv4 addresses 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12 and
192.168.0.0/16.

HSRP ROUTING PROTOCOL
Using HSRP, a set of routers work in concert to present the illusion of a single virtual router to the
hosts on the LAN. This set is known as an HSRP group or a standby group. A single router
elected from the group is responsible for forwarding the packets that hosts send to the virtual
router. This router is known as the active router. Another router is elected as the standby router.
In the event that the active router fails, the standby assumes the packet forwarding duties of
the active router

VPN
What is a VPN?
A VPN, or virtual private network, is a secure tunnel between your device and the
internet. VPNs protect you from online snooping, interference, and censorship
Change your location
Using a VPN changes your IP address, the unique number that identifies you and
your location in the world. With a new IP address, you can browse the internet as if
you were in the UK, Germany, Canada,

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