Since pollution is an externality firms will not undertake to control their pollution. The answer is in government regulations. Coase argues that in perfect competition with laissez faire, govt regulation is not needed. Instead bargaining between the polluters and their victims can lead to an optimal situation. But this pre supposes equality in bargaining, and does not take note of ecological consequences of pollution.
The document summarizes The Problem of Social Cost by R.H. Coase. It discusses how standard economic analysis treats negative externalities, but neglects that problems have a reciprocal nature. It presents Coase's theorem, which states that if property rights are well-defined, the parties involved can bargain to reach the optimal allocation through negotiation, independently of the initial allocation of property rights. However, transaction costs may prevent this optimal outcome from being achieved.
Coase Theorem: Is there need for Government Interventionclapton munongerwa
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The document discusses the Coase theorem and when government intervention is necessary to address environmental problems. It argues that according to the Coase theorem, the market will internalize externalities if property rights are well defined and transaction costs are low. However, the market fails to reach efficient outcomes when there are no property rights, many affected parties, high transaction costs, or uncertainty about externalities. In these situations, government intervention, through policies like pollution taxes or quotas, is needed to correct inefficiencies caused by externalities and ensure sustainability.
This document discusses externalities and how they can lead to market inefficiencies. It defines externalities as uncompensated impacts of one person's actions on another. Negative externalities like pollution lead to overproduction, while positive externalities like education benefits lead to underproduction. Government policies like Pigouvian taxes or tradable permits can help internalize these externalities and achieve socially optimal production levels. Private solutions via bargaining are also possible using the Coase theorem, but transaction costs may prevent private solutions in some cases.
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This document discusses positive and negative externalities through examples and graphs. For positive externalities like education, the social benefit is greater than the private benefit, leading the market equilibrium to be less than the socially optimal level. For negative externalities like pollution from steel production, the social cost is greater than the private cost, so the market equilibrium is greater than the optimal level. The document explains how government policies like subsidies or taxes can help correct these market failures by aligning private and social costs/benefits. It concludes by asking for feedback to improve the author's understanding of externalities graphs.
The document discusses the Coase Theorem and its implications for policymaking. It introduces the Coase Theorem, which states that with costless negotiation and clearly defined property rights, parties can negotiate efficient solutions to externalities. It provides examples of neighbors negotiating over loud music to illustrate this. However, negotiation is not always costless in the real world. Therefore, government intervention through laws, taxes, and subsidies can sometimes help increase total surplus by addressing externalities where private negotiations fail.
Pigouvian taxes are taxes imposed to reduce negative externalities. They work by taxing activities based on consumption levels, so that those who consume more pay more in tax. This encourages reduced consumption of the taxed product or activity. The document discusses how Pigouvian taxes have been implemented in New Zealand on cigarettes, alcohol, fossil fuels and carbon emissions. It notes the taxes can help reduce negative externalities while funding benefits for the community and environment. However, it also acknowledges disadvantages like increased business costs and the inability to completely stop consumption of taxed products.
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This document discusses several concepts related to market failures including externalities, public goods, imperfect information, and social choice. It provides the following key points:
1. Externalities occur when costs or benefits from an economic activity impact third parties outside the activity. This can lead to an inefficient allocation of resources if not accounted for.
2. Public goods are nonrival and nonexcludable, making them difficult for private markets to provide due to free-rider problems. Government typically provides public goods.
3. Imperfect information in markets can cause problems like adverse selection and moral hazard that prevent efficient exchanges. Both market and government solutions exist.
4. Social choice theory examines how to aggregate
The Kyoto Protocol is a 1997 global agreement that set targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It aimed to reduce emissions in industrialized countries to 5% below 1990 levels by 2008-2012, with varying targets for different countries. While most industrialized countries met their targets, emissions in other high emitters like the US rose. The targets are now seen as too low, and greater reductions are needed to combat climate change. Individual actions and moving to renewable energy can help reduce emissions, but replacing coal with nuclear power will also be necessary to meet future targets.
Public goods are characterized by non-excludability and non-rivalry. They cause market failure because the private sector cannot exclude non-payers or protect property rights. Examples include national defense, flood control, and street lighting. Quasi-public goods share some characteristics but can be made semi-excludable or semi-rival through congestion. While the private sector does not normally provide pure public goods, governments must determine optimal provision levels, though new technologies are blurring distinctions with private goods.
The document discusses research conducted on eating disorders in athletes. A survey assessed factors contributing to eating disorders and sports most focused on body weight. Focus groups asked about diagnostic criteria and prevention. Interviews revealed coaches and athletes should be educated young to prevent disorders. The data helped narrow the topic to how society influences disorders in athletes and that coaches and athletes are the key targets for education to decrease prevalence.
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The document discusses the colonization of Latin America by European powers beginning in the 15th century. It outlines key events like the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 which divided control of newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal. Over time, creoles and mestizos grew discontent with unfair treatment under Spanish rule. The spread of Enlightenment ideas and revolutions in France and North America inspired independence movements in Latin America seeking popular government and secular rule. As Spain weakened due to conflicts with other European powers in the 18th century, strong South American leaders emerged to challenge Spanish authority and build momentum for independence.
1. O documento cont辿m um teste de matem叩tica com v叩rias quest探es sobre n炭meros e opera巽探es, organiza巽達o e tratamento de dados e geometria.
2. Uma das quest探es pede para assinalar qual o lugar em que Ana ficou numa corrida de 19 alunos, se 16 ficaram frente dela.
3. Outra quest達o pede para identificar o percurso feito por Jos辿 num mapa do recreio da escola, partindo do ponto J.
The document discusses the later peoples who invaded and ruled Mesopotamia after the Sumerians, including the Babylonians led by Hammurabi who established one of the first written law codes, as well as the Hittites, Assyrians, and Chaldeans who each came to dominate the region at different points in time through military conquests and innovations. Hammurabi expanded the Babylonian empire through his army and ruled for 42 years, establishing one of the earliest written law codes containing 282 laws dealing with aspects of daily life.
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Group A students for Dr. Shazida Jan's class are:
1) Nor Akilah binti Ibrahim
2) Nur Syazana Asmaa' binti Ahmad Sayuty
3) Nurul Fatin Asyiqin binti Roslan
4) Nur Azyan Azwani binti Abd Wahid
5) Noor fazirah binti Ahmad
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Ringkasan dokumen ini adalah:
1. Dokumen ini memohon kelulusan untuk projek persatuan yang bertujuan meningkatkan kerjasama antara institusi pengajian tinggi dalam program mobiliti pelajar.
2. Ia mencadangkan penganjuran bengkel untuk menilai kesamaan kursus dan merangka pelan pelaksanaan program pertukaran pelajar.
3. Anggaran perbelanjaan dan sumber pendapatan juga dinyatakan untuk memperoleh kelulusan projek.
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The Kyoto Protocol is a 1997 global agreement that set targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It aimed to reduce emissions in industrialized countries to 5% below 1990 levels by 2008-2012, with varying targets for different countries. While most industrialized countries met their targets, emissions in other high emitters like the US rose. The targets are now seen as too low, and greater reductions are needed to combat climate change. Individual actions and moving to renewable energy can help reduce emissions, but replacing coal with nuclear power will also be necessary to meet future targets.
Public goods are characterized by non-excludability and non-rivalry. They cause market failure because the private sector cannot exclude non-payers or protect property rights. Examples include national defense, flood control, and street lighting. Quasi-public goods share some characteristics but can be made semi-excludable or semi-rival through congestion. While the private sector does not normally provide pure public goods, governments must determine optimal provision levels, though new technologies are blurring distinctions with private goods.
The document discusses research conducted on eating disorders in athletes. A survey assessed factors contributing to eating disorders and sports most focused on body weight. Focus groups asked about diagnostic criteria and prevention. Interviews revealed coaches and athletes should be educated young to prevent disorders. The data helped narrow the topic to how society influences disorders in athletes and that coaches and athletes are the key targets for education to decrease prevalence.
The document discusses the importance of effective communication in the workplace. It outlines several barriers to effective communication, including physiological, physical, attitudinal, cultural, and lack of training barriers. It also discusses different types of communication in the workplace, including upward communication from employees to management, downward communication from management to employees, and horizontal communication between employees of the same level. Key principles of business writing are also outlined, such as staying focused on the intended purpose and behavior change in readers, identifying the writer and reader's purpose, and clearly explaining the meaning.
The document discusses the colonization of Latin America by European powers beginning in the 15th century. It outlines key events like the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 which divided control of newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal. Over time, creoles and mestizos grew discontent with unfair treatment under Spanish rule. The spread of Enlightenment ideas and revolutions in France and North America inspired independence movements in Latin America seeking popular government and secular rule. As Spain weakened due to conflicts with other European powers in the 18th century, strong South American leaders emerged to challenge Spanish authority and build momentum for independence.
1. O documento cont辿m um teste de matem叩tica com v叩rias quest探es sobre n炭meros e opera巽探es, organiza巽達o e tratamento de dados e geometria.
2. Uma das quest探es pede para assinalar qual o lugar em que Ana ficou numa corrida de 19 alunos, se 16 ficaram frente dela.
3. Outra quest達o pede para identificar o percurso feito por Jos辿 num mapa do recreio da escola, partindo do ponto J.
The document discusses the later peoples who invaded and ruled Mesopotamia after the Sumerians, including the Babylonians led by Hammurabi who established one of the first written law codes, as well as the Hittites, Assyrians, and Chaldeans who each came to dominate the region at different points in time through military conquests and innovations. Hammurabi expanded the Babylonian empire through his army and ruled for 42 years, establishing one of the earliest written law codes containing 282 laws dealing with aspects of daily life.
Onyx Beacon: 10 ideas from IBM InterConnect 2015OnyxBeacon
油
Onyx Beacon deployed a network of 50 beacons at IBM's InterConnect 2015 conference in Las Vegas. The 4-day event had over 20,000 participants across 2000+ technical sessions. Onyx Beacon gained 10 key insights from the large-scale deployment, including creating a complete event scenario, leveraging dead times, optimizing beacon placement, and analyzing collected data to improve future events.
Komunikasi vs Kemahiran Asas KaunselingFatin Asyiqin
油
Komunikasi merupakan proses transaksional yang dinamik, berterusan, berbentuk bulat, dan tidak dapat ditarik balik. Terdapat lima kriteria transaksional yang menerangkan sifat-sifat komunikasi. Komunikasi melibatkan unsur-unsur sumber, mesej, saluran, penerima, dan maklumbalas. Ada empat jenis komunikasi utama yaitu komunikasi massa, organisasi, kumpulan kecil, dan diadik.
Group A students for Dr. Shazida Jan's class are:
1) Nor Akilah binti Ibrahim
2) Nur Syazana Asmaa' binti Ahmad Sayuty
3) Nurul Fatin Asyiqin binti Roslan
4) Nur Azyan Azwani binti Abd Wahid
5) Noor fazirah binti Ahmad
Penyediaan kertas kerja projek persatuanFatin Asyiqin
油
Ringkasan dokumen ini adalah:
1. Dokumen ini memohon kelulusan untuk projek persatuan yang bertujuan meningkatkan kerjasama antara institusi pengajian tinggi dalam program mobiliti pelajar.
2. Ia mencadangkan penganjuran bengkel untuk menilai kesamaan kursus dan merangka pelan pelaksanaan program pertukaran pelajar.
3. Anggaran perbelanjaan dan sumber pendapatan juga dinyatakan untuk memperoleh kelulusan projek.
Negara Sedang Membangun berbeza dengan Negara Membangun di peringkat awalFatin Asyiqin
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Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang proses penciptaan manusia menurut pandangan Islam. Menurut Al-Quran, manusia diciptakan melalui beberapa tahap, yakni pertama dari tanah liat, kemudian air mani disimpan di rahim dan berkembang menjadi darah, daging, tulang, dan akhirnya menjadi manusia. Proses penciptaan manusia secara keseluruhan menunjukkan kekuasaan dan keajaiban Allah sebagai pencipta al
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2. Pengenalan
Di perkenalkan oleh Ronald Coase pada
tahun 1960
Menekankan kepentingan poperty right
dan bargaining di antara polluters dan
sufferers
Menolak campurtangan kerajaan melalui
pengenaan cukai, pemberian subsidi,
penetapan standard dll
3. Tawar-menawar yang disokong oleh
pemilikan property right dengan sendirinya
dapat menyelesaikan masalah
private optimal
social optimal
level of pollution
level of pollution
Tidak kira siapa yang memegang property
right (polluter atau pun sufferer), wujud
tendensi secara automatik bagi mewujudkan
tingkat sosial yang optimum melalui proses
tawar-menawar di antara polluters dan
sufferers
4. Definisi Property Right
Hak untuk menggunakan sesuatu sumber (resource)
contoh: hak untuk bercucuk tanam di atas tanah milik
sendiri
hak untuk guna rumah sendiri
Hak untuk guna sumber-sumber alam dengan cara
tertentu
Hak bukanlah hak mutlak individu kerana tertakluk
kepada undang-undang atau peraturan
contoh: bebas bercucuk tanam atas tanah milik
sendiri, tapi salah di sisi undang-undang
kalau tanam ganja (popi)
private hak milik persendirian
Right
communal hak milik bersama
6. Rajah - konsep asas eksternaliti yang
optima
Jika dibiarkan, polluter akan cuba untuk
beroperasi hingga Qmax bagi
memaksimakan keuntungannya
Tetapi, aktiviti eksternaliti yang optima
bagi masyarakat hanyalah bila tkt aktiviti
ekonomi Q*.
Jadi, wujud konflik antara private &
social.
7. Berdasarkan Teori Coase, tidak kira siapa
yang memegang property right (polluter
ataupun sufferer), wujud tendensi secara
automatik bagi mewujudkan tingkat sosial
yang optimum melalui proses tawarmenawar di antara polluters dan
sufferers.
8. Kes 1 : Sufferer mempunyai property
right
Sufferer mempunyai hak (right) untuk tidak
didedahkan kepada pencemaran
Polluter tidak mempunyai hak untuk
melakukan pencemaran
Analisis bermula dari titik origin - sufferer
prefer menghapuskan pencemaran
sepenuhnya.
9. Andaikan wujud tawar-menawar (bargain) di
antara polluter dan sufferer
Pergerakan dari titik origin ke titik d
Jika kedua-dua bersetuju untuk ke titik d maka:
Polluter akan mendapat jumlah keuntungan sebanyak 0abd
Sufferer akan mengalami kerugian sebanyak 0cd
0abd > 0cd polluter boleh memberi pampasan
(compansation) kepada suffer dan masih
menerima keuntungan bersih (net profit).
Pergerakan ke titik d menguntungkan kedua
belah pihak
dikenali sebagai PARETO IMPROVEMENT (At least
one party better off and no party is worse off)
10. Pergerakan ke titik e dan pergerakan ke
titik Q*- masih terima net gain.
Pergerakan melepasi titik Q* tidak
feasible
Net gain polluter < kerugian sufferer
polluter tidak mampu compensate sufferer
Kesimpulannya:
Sufferer memiliki hak
mula dari origin
tendensi semulajadi bergerak ke titik Q*
melalui proses tawar-menawar
11. Kes 2: Polluter mempunyai property
right
Bererti polluter ada hak untuk melakukan
pencemaran melalui aktiviti ekonomi
Titik permulaan analisis
Qmax
Tahap yang paling menguntungkan jika
polluter mengguna property right yang
dimilikinya bagi mengeluarkan barangan
12. Andaikan sekali lagi wujud tawar menawar
di antara kedua-dua pihak polluter dan
sufferer
Isu yang timbul ialah sama ada akan
bergerak dari titik Qmax ke titik f atau tidak
Kini giliran sufferer pula memberi
pampasan kepada polluter supaya
mengurangkan aktivitinya yang boleh
menghasilkan pencemaran
13. Sufferer terpaksa mengalami kerugian sebanyak
fhiQmax jika tidak bergerak ke titik f
Sanggup bayar sejumlah pampasan kepada
polluter
Jumlah pampasan jauh lebih rendah dari fhiQmax
Polluters terima pampasan melebihi kerugian
yang terpaksa ditanggung untuk bergerak ke titik f
sekurang-kurangnya sejumlah fgQmax.
fhiQmax lebih basar dari fgQmax maka potensi
untuk tawar-menawar sekali lagi wujud
Dalam konteks ini sufferer membayar polluter
sejumlah wang pampasan lebih tinggi dari
fgQmax tapi lebih rendah dari fhiQmax.
14. Begitu juga kewajaranya untuk bergerak
ke titik j dan seterusnya ke titik Q*.
Selagi berlaku tawar-menawar di pasaran
antara polluter dan sufferer, kita akan
memperolehi tingkat aktiviti ekonomi yang
optima bagi masyarakat iaitu Q*.
15. Kesimpulan
tidak kira siapa yang memegang property
right, wujud tendensi secara automatik
untuk mencapai titik Q* yang optima bagi
masyarakat
16. KRITIKAN TERHADAP COASE
THEOREM
Ada beberapa kritikan terhadap Teori Coase.
Antaranya ialah:
ketidak sempurnaan persaingan dalam
pasaran (imperfect competition)
kos transaksi yang tinggi
masalah mengenalpasti siapakah polluter
dan sufferer
sikap mengambil kesempatan (threat-making
behavior)