2. Introduction:
In nature there is a great diversity of life.
Enormous varieties of living organisms are found around
us.
The great diversity that exist today is a result of gradual
orderly changes in simple living organisms of past.
This gradual, orderly changes in the simple living
organisms lived in the past, leading to the formation of
present day complex organisms is referred as evolution.
The term evolution literally means unrolling or unfolding.
The evolution or evolutionary biology deals with study of
history of life forms on the earth.
3. Organic Evolution
A gradual orderly change from one
generation to another in living organisms over
millions of years ago is called organic evolution
OR
The development of more & more complex
life forms from pre-existing life forms is called
organic evolution.
5. The history of life on earth, comprises of two events;
1. Origin of Life
2. Evolution of Life.
Origin of life deals with appearance of life for the first
time on earth. It is linked with origin of earth.
Evolution of Life (Organic Evolution) deals with the
mechanism that have led to changes and biodiversity on
earth.
6. The origin of Life:
The appearance of life for the first time on earth is called
the origin of life or biopoeisis.
The origin of life deals with an attempt to understand how
life on the earth originated.
It is a scientific belief that the life first originated from
non-living things in primordial form about 3000 million
years ago, but exact mode of origin of life is not known.
7. Theories on Origin of Life:
A number of philosophers, scientists & different
religions have put forth the views & ideas in the form
of theories & hypothesis to explain an exact mode of
origin of life.
Among them some of the important theories which
explains the origin of life are.
1. Theory of special creation
2. Theory of panspermia
3. Theory of spontaneous generation
4. Theory of Biogenesis
5. Theory of chemical evolution of life
8. Theory of Special Creation:
This theory was based on the conventional religious
literature.
This theory was first proposed by Father Sudrez (Spanish
monk) (1548-1617).
According to this theory, everything including the sun,
earth, planets, animals & man were created by some
super-natural power recognized as God (the creator).
It is an antithesis of evolution.
9. This theory has three connotations;
1. All living organisms that we see today were
created as such.
2. The diversity of life forms was also the same
since the time of creation and will remain the
same in future also.
3. Earth was formed about 4000 years old.
All these ideas were clearly rejected by scientific
facts, fossil records & Darwins view of evolution.
10. Theory of Panspermia:
This theory was proposed by Ritcher (1865).
According to this theory life of our planet earth
came from other planets or outer space.
Early Greek philosophers thought units called
spores or pansperms came on the earth along with
meteorites and they might have evolved into the
present day life forms.
11. Theory of Spontaneous Generation
(Abiogenesis)
There was an ancient belief in people that the living
organisms were originated from lifeless materials
spontaneously.
The formation of life from non-living materials
spontaneously and continuously is called abiogenesis.
Greek philosophers including Aristotle believed that
elements such as air, water, fire and earth have vital
forces or active principles to transfer lifeless matter into
living things.
According to this theory frogs, fishes and snakes were
evolved from mud. Mice would be formed spontaneously
from dry wheat straw.
12. Theory of Biogenesis:
Biogenesis refers to the origin of life from pre-existing life by
reproduction.
This theory says that fishes came only from fishes; rats from
rats & insects from insects & so on. i.e. life begets life.
Francesco Redi was the founder of this theory & it was
supported by many other scientists like Spallanzani, Louis
Pasteur & others.
They claimed that insects cannot arise from decaying meat if
it is kept closed air tight. This was proved experimentally.
Later Louis Pasteur, disproved the theory of abiogenesis by
his popular experiment called Swan-necked flask &
demonstrated that life comes only from pre-existing life.
But this theory explains about continuation of life on the
earth but did not tell about the origin of first life on the
earth.
13. Theory of chemical evolution of life:
(Molecular evolution of life):
This is most widely accepted theory. This theory was first
introduced by A.I.Oparin in 1923.
Oparins views were later on published in his book
The origin of life.
Later this concept was independently proposed by
J.B.S.Haldane (1928) & Sydney Fox (1950) as the origin of
life by chemical evolution.
14. According to this theory, the life was formed
about 3.5 billion years ago, in a primitive
atmosphere from non-living substances through
a chemical evolution.
i.e. life originated from chemicals through a
gradual progressive changes over a long period
of time.
This theory suggests that life originated from
inorganic substances which were transformed
into organic substances which in turn were
transformed into colloidal system to produce
the first form of life.
15. The whole concept of chemical evolution of life can
be summarized as follows:
According to BIG BANG THEORY (proposed by Abbe
Lemaitre in 1931), the earth originated about 4.5 billion
years ago in the universe as a part broken-off from solar
system in the form of a spherical gaseous cloud called
Solar nebula still then the earth was very hot & later it
went on cooling & condensing.
The atmosphere of earth before origin of life is called
pre-biotic atmosphere.
It contains elements like hydrogen, carbon, oxygen &
nitrogen in the gaseous form. As the earth started cooling
gradually atoms of these simple elements react with one
another to form simple inorganic compounds like H2O,
CH4, CO2, NH3, HCN & H2.
16. All biologists agreed that there was no free molecular
oxygen in significant amount. Hence, pre-biotic
atmosphere of earth is called reducing atmosphere.
The primitive earth was continuously disturbed by
heavy rainfalls, earth quakes, lightning, thunder storms
& volcanic eruptions as a result of these, sea & oceans
were formed on earth containing simple inorganic
compounds.
The changing atmosphere of earth allowed simple
inorganic molecules to combine to form biologically
important micromolecules like amino acids, fatty acids,
simple sugars, purines, pyrimidines, ADP & ATP.
17. Later these molecules formed the macromolecules like
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, etc.
In due course of chemical evolution, these
macromolecules combined to form complex distinct
colloidal droplets called coacervates. The formation of
coacervates is called as coacervation.
These coacervates later converted into more complex
structures called protobionts /protocells.
According to Oparin, protobionts are the fore-runners
of first form of life.
After formation of nucleic acids they attracted other
organic molecules & started functioning as genes &
also started directing the synthesis of proteins &
enzymes.
In this way, biological evolution began with the
formation of first cell..
18. Millers experiment:
The whole concept of Oparins theory of chemical
evolution of life was based on the formation of organic
molecules from inorganic molecules.
The idea of chemical evolution inspired Stanley Miller
& Harold Urey at the University of Chicago.
Thus, they scientifically tested the chemical evolution
of life through an experiment called Stanley Millers
experiment or Urey & Millers experiment in 1953.
Miller used an apparatus called spark discharge
apparatus as shown in the figure.
20. The apparatus consist of..
- A large spark discharge chamber with two
electrodes.
- A water boiler connected to spark discharge
chamber by a bent glass tube.
- A side tube connected to vacuum pump to
introduce the gasses into the apparatus.
- A cooling jacket with condenser.
- A U-shaped trap to collect the liquid containing
newly formed molecules.
21. Experiment
Miller introduced into the apparatus, a
mixture of gases like CH4, NH3, & H2 in the ratio
of 1:2:2 which were supposed to be present in
the pre-biotic environment (creating a pre-
biotic atmosphere). He partially filled the flask
with water & heated it.
This mixture was then exposed to a
continuous electrical discharge for several days
causing the gases to interact. The mixture was
then passed through a condenser & collected in
a trap. The experiment was run continuously for
a week then he analyzed the contents.
22. Observation
It was found that there were mainly
organic compounds such as amino acids,
acetic acid, succinic acid, ribose, adenine,
urea, etc.
23. Conclusion
Thus, Millers experiment tried to create the
conditions of primitive atmosphere in the lab. The
experiment successfully showed that organic
compounds could be produced in the conditions
prevailing in the pre-biotic earth.
Thus, it provided the possibility of chemical
evolution of life.
24. The genetic change in a population from one generation
to another is called biological evolution.
Charles Darwin defined evolution as descent with
modification i.e. present day complex living organisms
have evolved from earlier simpler organisms by small but
gradual changes which have occurred over millions of
years.
The concept of biological evolution states that the
organisms living today are modified descendants of those
that lived in the past.
25. Theories of biological evolution
Different theories have been proposed by different
scientists at different time to explain the
mechanism of evolution. Some of them are..
1. Lamarcks theory of evolution (Lamarckism)
2. Theory of natural selection (Darwinism)
3. De-Vries Mutation theory
26. Lamarcks theory of evolution or Lamarckism:
(Use & disuse theory):
One of the first attempts to explain the mechanism of
evolution was made by Jean Baptiste Lamarck, a French
scientist.
The evolutionary ideas of Lamarck
were published in book
Philosophic Zoologuique (1809).
This evolutionary theory is
popularly called as Lamarckism
or Inheritance of acquired characters.
27. According to Lamarck, the evolution has occurred due
to use & disuse of organs.
i.e. when an organ is put to a greater use, that
particular organ develops well, at the same time when
an organ is not used for long time, it gets reduced or
become rudimentary or vestigial organs (useless or
functionless organs ex:- coccyx in man, vermiform
appendix & limbs of snakes) & in due course it
degenerates & disappears completely from the
organism.
The characters are the adaptations developed by an
organism during its life time is passed onto their
progeny.
28. Vestigial organs organs that serve no function in
an organism.
- may have been useful in the past.
- Ex: Bones in whales, vermiform appendix,
limbs of snakes.
30. Lamarck quoted long neck of Giraffe as an example for
use & disuse theory.
31. According to Lamarck the long neck of giraffe is
an outcome of an attempt to stretch their neck
continuously to reach the foliage (leaves) of
taller trees. Hence, the process of stretching
their necks continued generation after
generation to get the leaves of still taller trees &
this resulted in longer neck leading to the origin
of modern giraffe.
As they passed on this acquired character of
long neck to their succeeding generations.
Hence, the modern giraffes tend to acquire the
long neck over a long period of time.
32. August Weismanns Experiment
20
The tails of mice were continuously cut for about 20 generations.
21
But the mice were born with normal tails in the 21st generation.
33. Theory of Natural Selection (Darwinism):
The evolutionary ideas contributed by an English biologist
Charles Darwin was published in his famous book called
origin of new species by natural selection.
Darwin sailed around the world in a ship named HMS
Beagle for about 7 years and collected vital information
and evidences in favour of organic evolution. T
The evolutionary idea contributed by Darwin is called
Darwinism or theory of natural selection.
It explains the mechanism of evolution.
34. Principles of Darwinism:
1. Over production
2. Struggle for existence
3. Variations
4. Survival of the fittest
5. Origin of species
35. 1. Over Production
It is the tendency of all living organisms to
multiply rapidly. According to Darwin, all living
organisms increase in a geometric ratio.
Ex: insects, fishes, elephants, oysters, etc.
36. 2. Struggle for Existence
Over production leads to struggle for existence. Since
living organisms increases in a geometric ratio but
there is no correspondence increase in space, food &
other factors of life. This leads to competition for
getting the requirements of life. This competition is
called struggle for existence.
37. The competition could be;
Intraspecific (between members of same sps.) or
Interspecific (between members of different sps.)
38. 3. Variations
Variation is defined as the difference in character
between the individuals. According to Darwin, no two
individuals are alike except the identical twins.
According to Darwin, small continuous variations are
important for evolution & they arise at random.
Darwin described 2 types of variations, viz.,
Favorable variations (the characters that are useful
to the possessor in struggle for existence).
Unfavorable variations (the characters that are
harmful to the possessor).
39. 4. Survival of the fittest
The organisms with favorable variations succeed in
struggle for existence & pass their variations to their
next progeny. These organisms are the fittest to
survive & other organisms are unfit to survive &
finally they are eliminated or perish.
According to Darwin, the fitness & unfitness is
decided by the nature (environment). So, he said that
nature acts as a selecting force. It selects those
organisms which are provided with the favorable
variations. This process of selection of an organism
with favorable variations is called natural selection.
40. 5. Origin of new species (Speciation)
The organisms selected by nature reach the
sexual maturity stage & they produce young ones.
These young ones receive useful variations from their
parents, which would be accumulated over a period
of time making these young ones look different from
their ancestors, finally leading to the origin of new
species.
41. Many new species of finches develop from isolation.
Differences in beak sizes/shapes result from different
environments (food sources).
42. Examples for Natural Selection through Darwinism:
Industrial Melanism:
It is one of the best example that explains the impact of
environment & natural selection on the peppered moth
(Biston betularia) found in the Manchester, in an
industrial city of Great Britain.
The peppered moths exist in 2 forms, namely;
melanic forms (Black) & non-melanic forms (White).
The melanic forms are also called as carbonaria & contain
melanin pigment.
The light colour is due the absence of melanin pigment.
44. In Great Britain, as more & more industries were
developing during the last 150 years, the smoke &
soot arising from the industries are deposited in the
surrounding areas. Hence, the light coloured area is
gradually transformed into a black coloured area. If
there are white coloured moths in the soot covered
area then they will be easily seen by predators &
are captured & eaten by them.
On the other hand, if there are black coloured
moths in soot covered areas then they match the
surrounding background & hence easily escape
from the predatory birds. To escape from enemies,
the moths develop the black colour in the
industrialized areas.
45. It is an excellent example of natural selection. Here
nature (environment) favours the black moths to
survive which match the dark background.
46. Resistance to DDT:
In agriculture, insects, pests are controlled by
spraying DDT.
However, DDT cannot bring 100% deaths in any
species of insects.
A certain number of individuals survives.
These surviving individuals are resistant to DDT.
The resistance is a character controlled by genes.
The resistant flies arise due to application of DDT.
They reproduce more & more resistant flies.
Thus the resistant populations are evolved as a
selective advantage against insecticide.
47. De-Vries Mutation Theory
In 1902, Hugo De Vries proposed mutation theory to
explain the mechanism of evolution.
Hugo De Vries was one of the three rediscoverers of
Mendels laws of heredity in 1900.
He is considered as the father of mutation.
De Vries proposed mutation theory based on the
experiments and observations on an ornamental plant
called evening primrose (Oenothera lamarckiana).
Mutation theory states that new species arises from
the pre-existing population in a single generation by a
sudden change in the genetic material of an organism
which is called mutation.
49. Mutation is a sudden change occurring in the genetic
material of an organism or a sudden change of a
gene or chromosome from one form to another is
called as mutation.
De Vries considered mutations as the raw material for
evolution. He used the term spontaneous mutation to
discontinuous variations that arise all of a sudden.
Darwin also noticed the occurrence of discontinuous
variations and he called them as sports in his book
origin of species and did not consider them of much
importance.
50. Evolution according to Darwin was a slow and gradual
process but De vries believed that the new species
arise by a sudden jump (mutation) and called them as
saltation through a single step large mutation
(macrogenesis).
However, question of evolution and evolution by
saltation is still debatable.
51. Salient features of De Vries Mutation theory
1. Mutations are the raw material for evolution.
2. Mutations appear suddenly and produce their effect
immediately.
3. New species originate as a result of large
discontinuous variations that appear suddenly due to
mutation.
4. Mutations are markedly different from the parents
and there are no intermediate stages between the
two.
5. Same mutations can appear in several individuals of a
species.
52. 6. Mutations are recurring so that the same mutations
appear again and again, thereby increasing the
chance of selection by nature.
7. A single mutation may produce a new species.
8. Mutations are random and directionless i.e.
mutations takes place in all directions.
9. Natural selection works on mutations. Nature selects
beneficial mutations and eliminates lethal mutations.
10. Thus, according to De-Vries, evolution is
discontinuous and jerky process.
53. HARDY-WEINBERGs PRINCIPLE
It was first proposed in 1908 & is named after the British
mathematician G.H.Hardy & a German physicist
Weinberg.
Hardy-Weinbergs law states that The gene frequency of
a Mendelian population remains constant through
generation, unless there must be any factor to upset it.
55. This law says that in a large population the gene
frequencies of various kinds of genes remain constant
generation after generation, if the mating is at random &
in the absence of mutations & natural selection etc.
Though there is a continuous transfer of genes within a
population but the over all gene frequency remains
constant.
This state of stability of gene frequency is called as
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium or genetic equilibrium.
Disturbance in the genetic equilibrium is considered as
evolutionary change.
56. So, when there is no genetic change in a population,
evolution cannot occur. Hence, when a population follows
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium then the rate of evolution is
zero. So, evolution can occur only when Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium is upset or altered.
According to Hardy-Weinberg law, the sum total of all
allelic frequencies is one.
For example, in a population with only 2 alleles A & a, the
possible genotypes in population will be AA, Aa & aa. We
do not know the frequencies of these in the population.
57. If frequency of allele A is to be presented by symbol p &
the frequency of allele a is to be presented by symbol q,
then the frequencies of two alleles in a population will
be 100% or 1.
If the frequencies are calculated in F2 generation in a
monohybrid cross;
Then, AA : Aa : aa
pxp: 2xpxq: qxq
i.e. P2+2pq+q2=1,this is a
binomial expansion of (p+q)2
Hence, (p+q)2=p2+2pq+q2=1
When genetic equilibrium is
altered, evolution occurs.
60. A change or variation in the gene frequency purely
as matter of chance is called genetic drift.
It was first described by Sewall Wright as Sewall
Wright effect .
Genetic drift is an evolutionary force observed in a
small population. It alters genetic equilibrium and
help in the origin of new species.
The original drifted population becomes founders
and the effect is called founder effect.
62. Evidences for Evolution:
As evolution is an incredibly & unimaginably a slow
process so, it cannot be seen by man during his
short period of life span.
If biological evolution has occurred, there must be
closer & distinct relationships between the diverse
varieties of todays living organisms.
Hence, there are many types of evidences that
support the process of biological evolution.
Some of them are discussed below:
1. Palaentological evidences
2. Morphological and anatomical evidences
3. Biogeographical evidences
63. Palaeontological Evidences
Palaeontology is the branch of biology which deals
with the study of fossils.
Fossils are the dead remains or impression of harder
parts of the past organisms preserved in the strata of
the earth.
Fossils provide one of the most acceptable evidence of
evolution.
The evidences of evolution based on the knowledge of
fossils are called Palaentological evidences.
64. During the formation of rocks the dead animals &
plants suddenly got buried in the sediments of rocks
& they escaped from decomposition & became fossils.
66. The study of fossils from different sedimentary layers
indicates:
- The geological time period in which the
organisms existed.
- The life forms varied over time & certain life
forms are restricted to certain geological time
scale.
- The new form of life might have appeared at
different times in the history of earth.
67. Morphological and Anatomical Evidences
The idea of evolution from a common ancestor is
reinforced when certain morphological & anatomical
structures of different organisms are compared.
The evidences based on comparative morphology and
anatomy shows both similarities & differences among the
present day organisms & those existed long before.
These morphological & anatomical evidences include
homology and analogy.
68. Homology
The study of relationship between homologous
structures is called homology.
The organs which have same fundamental structure &
origin but look different & perform different functions
are called Homologous structures.
Homology indicates the inheritance from a common
ancestry.
Homologous organs follow the same basic plan of
organization during their development but in adult
condition these organs are modified to perform
different functions as an adaptation to availing
environment.
69. Homologous Structures
For example, forelimbs of
vertebrates such as Man,
Cheetah, Whale and Bat
share similarities in pattern
of bones of forelimbs though
these forelimbs perform
different functions.
In these animals they have
same basic plan or similar
anatomical structures.
70. Hence, in these animals the structures are developed
along the different directions due to adaptation to
different needs, this is called Divergent evolution.
Homology is also seen in heart & brain of different
vertebrates.
Other examples of homologous organs are mouth parts
of some insects, teeth of man, etc.
71. Homology is also seen in plants, for example; thorns of
Bougainvillea & tendrils of Cucurbita are homologous
organs as they look different & perform different functions
but both arise in axillary position & are modified branches
of stem.
Homologous organs are the result of divergent evolution.
72. Analogy
It is the relationship among the organs of different
groups of organisms performing the same function
irrespective of structural or anatomical differences.
The organs which have similar functions but are
different in their origin and basic structures are
called Analogous structures.
73. Analogous Structures
For example;
- Wings of insects & those
of birds,
- Eyes of octopus & those of
mammals,
- flippers of dolphins & those
of penguins.
74. In plants, for example, tubers of potato (stem
modification) & those of sweet potato (root modification).
75. Analogy is a result of Convergent evolution
i.e. an evolutionary process in which anatomically
different structures in different groups of organisms
are evolved towards the same function and it is due to
similar habitats to which different organisms are
adapted.
Analogous organs do not share a common ancestory.
76. Biogeographical Evidences
The study of patterns of distribution of animals & plants
in different parts of the world is called Biogeography.
The differential geographical distribution of different
groups of organisms indicates a common ancestory in
that restricted region.
Darwin made a sea voyage around the world especially
around the Galapagos & Gondawana islands. He sailed
in a ship named as HMS Beagle.
During his voyage, Darwin observed and studied wide
varieties of plants and animals on continents and
islands and also in distant seas which he has visited.
77. Darwin spent a month in Galapagos Islands & found
giant land tortoise, birds (finches) & plants of sunflower
family.
Darwin called Galapagos Island is a living laboratory of
evolution & developed his idea of natural selection only
in Galapagos Islands.
Biogeographical evidences explains adaptive radiation.
79. Adaptive radiations
Adaptive radiation may be defined as the
evolution of animals in several directions from a
single ancestral type.
OR
The formation of a number of diverse species
from a single ancestral stock is called adaptive
radiation.
80. Darwins Finches
Finches are small black birds found in Galapagos Islands.
During his voyage in a ship named HMS Beagle, he sailed
around those islands and he observed different varieties
of finches and was impressed by these finches. So, to
honour him, the Galapagos finches are called Darwins
finches.
According to Darwin, the finches were originated from a
single ancestral stock (seed eating) and later they were
emigrated to different islands and had undergone
adaptive changes due to different environmental
conditions and got fitted to the new islands.
81. As a result of living in isolated islands for longer time, the
new species of finches emerged and developed their
own habitat.
Note: The modification was mainly based on their
feeding habits.
82. Australian Marsupials
Darwin observed that a number of marsupials (pouched
mammals) each different from the other evolved from a
common ancestral stock but all within the Australia.
From the ancestral marsupials, different kinds of
marsupials like kangaroo, banded ant-eater, Tasmanian
wolf, flying marsupial squirrel, marsupial mouse evolved.
Also there were placental mammals that have exhibited
adaptive radiations and evolved into different placental
mammals each of which appears to be similar to a
corresponding marsupials like placental wolf, flying
squirrel, lemur, mouse etc.
84. GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE
According to geologists Earth was formed about 4.5 bya.
First life appeared in water about 3.5mya and gradually
become more & more complex & diversified.
The duration of earths history has been divided into five
principle geological time spans called Eras. Of which the
three recent eras are further divided into smaller time
spans known as periods which are in turn divided into
epochs.
The eras, periods & epochs of the geological time are
arranged in an orderly manner & this arrangement is
called as Geological time scale.
85. Different layers or strata of earth formed by
sedimentation.
Lowest layer was formed in ancient past & upper layer-
most recently.
Fossil records indicate age of different strata.
Different sediments contain different life forms which
probably died during the formation of particular
sediment as a result certain organisms like dinosaurs
have become extinct.
The geological time scale indicates the sequence and
the duration of eras and periods with their dominant
life forms.
88. The living modern man (Homo sapiens) belongs..
Order Primate,
Class Mammalia.
The primates also include Loris, Lemurs, Monkeys & Apes.
Monkeys, Apes & Humans together are called as
anthropoids.
The study of human evolution is called Anthropology.
Humans are closer in phylogeny to apes which in turn are
closer to old world monkeys.
89. Human evolution is a combination of biological &
cultural evolutions.
The available fossil records clearly indicate that
human beings originated first in East Africa.
About 15 million years ago (mya), Primates called
Dryopithecus & Ramapithecus were existing.
They were hairy & walked like gorilla and
chimpanzees.
Dryopithecus was more ape-like, but
Ramapithecus was more man-like.
90. Evolution of man can be studied with the
reference to the following fossil records.
1. Dryopithecus
2. Ramapithecus
3. Australopithecus
4.Homo habilis:
5. Homo erectus
6. Homo sapiens
i. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis
ii. Homo sapiens fossilis
iii. Homo sapiens sapiens
91. DRYOPITHECUS
Discovered from Central Asia,
China & India.
Oldest fossil evolved into Apes
and Man.
Lived in tropical forests of East
Africa about 20 mya.
Ancestor of modern Apes,
Chimpanzee and Gorilla.
Arboreal and fore-limbs shorter
than hind-limbs.
92. RAMAPITHECUS
Discovered from Shivalik
Hills of India.
Lived about 15 mya.
Fore-runners of Hominids.
First man-like primate.
Short-face, small brain &
thick large teeth.
They ate hard nuts & seeds.
The cranial capacity was less
than 900cc.
93. AUSTRALOPITHECUS (The 1st Ape-man)
Discovered from South Africa.
Lived about 2 - 5 mya in
East African Grasslands.
Hunted with stone weapons
and ate fruits.
Erect posture with bipedal
locomotion.
Face-Prognathous and
chin absent.
Brain capacity 450-600cc.
94. Homo habilis (The tool maker)
Lived in Africa about 2 mya.
Also called Handy Man,
capable of making tools.
Bipedal locomotion, erect
and lived in caves.
It was 1.2 to 1.5 m tall.
Brain capacity 650-800cc.
95. Homo erectus (The Ape-Man or Erect Man)
Discovered in Java in 1891.
Lived about 1.5 mya.
1.5 to 1.8m tall.
Face with Protruding jaws,
projecting brow ridges and
large molar teeth, small canines.
They ate meat & knew the
use of fire.
Brain capacity 900cc.
96. Homo sapiens:
Descended from homo erectus & more or less
identical to Modern Man.
Fossils of homo sapiens:
1. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis
2. Homo sapiens fossilis
3. Homo sapiens sapiens
97. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis
(Neanderthal Man)
Discovered from Neanderthal
Valley of Germany.
Existed about 75000 years back
in East & central Asia.
Face-Prognathous with no chin
and walked upright.
Tools were used much skillfully.
He was first creature on earth
to bury its dead bodies.
Brain capacity 1400cc.
98. Discovered from Europe.
Lived about 30000 years ago
They were 1.8m tall.
More intelligent and
well cultured.
Lived in families in caves,
made tools & ornaments.
Coloured paintings on walls
Brain capacity 1600cc.
Homo sapiens fossilis (Cro-Magnon Man)
99. Homo sapiens sapiens (The Modern Man)
Arose around 10000 years
after the last ice age period
Spread all over the world into
Caucasoid,
Mongoloid and
Negroid races.
Cranial capacity 1300-1600cc.
Agriculture, domesticated
animals, human settlements
and civilization.
Most successful story with
language skills & Self-consciousness.
