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Introduction to Ethics
What is Ethics?

Origin of Ethics: for further reading see Singer (1991) pp3-12
For further reading: Ethics in Ancient Greece;
Rowe (1991) in Singer (1991)pp121-130
• Ethics comes from a Greek
“ethos” and “Ethikos” which
mean custom and
character.
• Hence Ethics is sometimes
referred as moral
philosophy , moral ethics or
philosophical ethics.
• In Latin Ethics is used as
“mors or moralis” still to
mean behavior

What is Ethics Cont’d
• “Ethics is the attempt to clarify how people
ought to live. It elucidates the nature of the
good person and the good life, telling us how
to flourish or live well, and it characterizes the
obligations we have, enabling us to identify
what we must do. It Is the wide range study
of right and wrong , as well as good and bad,
insofar as these pertain to conduct and
character”. Luper (2002) pp 15.

What is Ethics Cont’d
• The subject matter of Ethics is the concept of good.
• Aristotle says that “ the good is that at which all things
aim” teleological- ( end based) view. Good actions
should lead to a good end.
• Ethics impose the reasonable obligations to refrain
from rape, stealing, murder, assault, slander, fraud etc.
• It also avails us with well founded standards such as
honesty, compassion, and loyalty. These standards
relate to rights, such as the right to life, the right to
freedom from injury, and the right to privacy.

What Ethics is Not
• Ethics is not the same as feelings. Feelings
provide important information for our ethical
choices. Some people have highly developed
habits that make them feel bad when they do
something wrong, but many people feel good
even though they are doing something wrong

What Ethics is Not Cont’d
• Ethics is not religion. Many people are not
religious, but ethics applies to everyone. Most
religions do advocate high ethical standards
but sometimes do not address all the types of
problems.

What Ethics Is Not Cont’d
• Ethics is not following the law. A good system of
law does incorporate many ethical standards, but
law can deviate from what is ethical. Law can
become ethically corrupt, as some totalitarian
regimes have made it. Law can be a function of
power alone and designed to serve the interests
of narrow groups. Law may have a difficult time
designing or enforcing standards in some
important areas, and may be slow to address new
problems.

What Ethics is not Cont’d
• Ethics is not following culturally accepted
norms. Some cultures are quite ethical, but
others become corrupt -or blind to certain
ethical concerns

What ethics is not Cont’d
• Ethics is not science. Social and natural science
can provide important data to help us make
better ethical choices. But science alone does not
tell us what we ought to do. Science may provide
an explanation for what humans are . But ethics
provides reasons for how humans ought to act.
And just because something is scientifically or
technologically possible, does not mean it may be
ethical to do it. ( surrogate mothers in some
incidences, sex toys, etc)

What Ethics Studies
• Ethics Studies two Objects:
• -The Material Object; which are the human acts.
These are acts carried out consciously and
willingly. Acts that we have control over.
• Acts of man are those carried by us without our
control..e.g. growth, feelings…etc
• - Ethics studies the formal object which the
morality of human acts. It studies the view point
of perspective form which one deals with
something. Human acts studied from the
perspective of the final goal.

Branches of Ethics
Three Main Branches:
1. Normative: it establishes norms, rules of
conduct to help people choose what is good.(
gives general guidelines)
It assumes there is a meter rule, a criterion, a
standard or set of principles to use as an
ultimate guide to our behavior and against
which we judge and are judged by others
2. Applied( business, bio-ethics, environmental ,
military etc)
3. Meta-ethics

Meta Ethics
• Meta-ethics ( 3 major parts) is a branch of analytic
philosophy that explores the status, foundations, and
scope of moral values, properties, and words(
Encyclopedia of philosophy)
• Where do ethical principles come from? Why be
ethical? What is the meaning of ethical language?
1. Metaphysical deals with the origin of ethics.
Three schools that try to explain for us the origin of
ethics.
-Platonic Realists/platonic realism: Ethical Principles
originate from the spirit world.

Meta Ethics( explanation for the origin
of ethics Cont’d)
a) Platonic realism is a philosophical term usually
used to refer to the idea of realism regarding the
existence of universals or abstract objects after
the Greek philosopher Plato (c. 427–c. 347 BC), a
student of Socrates.
• He holds that knowledge is inborn, Natural,
inherent, so that learning is the development of
ideas buried deep in the soul. That each soul
existed before birth with the form of good perfect
knowledge of Ideas. Thus, when an Idea is
"learned" it is actually just "recalled.

Meta Ethics Cont’d
• Reality must conform to the content of the
consciousness meaning that the presence of
any notion ( belief/idea/opinion) in our minds
proves a corresponding referent in reality.
• Therefore Morality exists in spiritual form.

Meta ethics Cont’d
b) Moral Skeptics: There is no valued moral principle at all.
• N.B Dunning (2015) says that skepticism is not a bout mere disbelief
about things, but that it is the process of applying reason and
critical thinking to determine validity. Skeptics re-direct attention
towards something that perhaps has been a result of superstition.
Scientific methods are central in skeptic reasoning. As a scientific
method it then requires evidence, preferably derived from validated
testing. Kropotkin (1922) goes ahead to then highlight Darwin’s
conclusion about morality being a social instinct. Darwin studied
social insects ( the ants, bees and wasps ) in which the activities of
bees were compared to man’s/human societies.
• Therefore; perhaps Ethical Principles come from society itself.

Meta Ethics –meta-physical Cont’d
2. Psychological: deals with the question regarding the
reason for which we act ethically: what motivates us to
act ethically?
- Practical wisdom in view of achieving happiness( the
absolute good of man) Aristotle and Kant
-Thomas Aquinas says it is synderesis-gives us intuition of
our moral obligation
- Self-inclined interests( Thomas Hobbes)
- It is personal pleasure and avoidance of pain( Hedonism)
- For good of others( Altruism)
- It is because of emotions( David Hume)

Meta ethics Cont’d
3.Linguistic:
studies the meaning and use of key ethical terms
That is to say, words that are used to describe how
people become and what sort of moral standards they
claim to follow should be clear and easy to understand.
• Ethical language (principles) should help us discover
and establish standards to distinguish right from wrong
• for example, honesty , truthfulness, justice, respect ,
equality, solidarity, are words that describe what come
to be known as good, while works such as liar,
impartial , dictator, etc are words that we perceive as
bad.

Ethics and Morality
• Morality; Descriptive Definition: is the code of
conduct put forward by society or group or as
accepted by an individual for his/her own
behavior .
• Normative definitive: code of conduct that
given specified conditions would be put
forward by all rational persons.

Ethics and Morality Cont’d
• Ethics and Morality are both normative
because they both; Judge conduct as good or
bad
• Balance what ought to be done and what
ought not to be done
• Consider the good , the self and the other
• Apply to day to day living and are applicable to
all areas of social life

Ethics as linked to all sectors of life
• Psychology
• Agriculture
• Economics and Business
• Law
• Sociology etc

Effects of Human acts
• Human acts have both positive and negative
effects on the actor.
They are self referential. The actor suffers the
consequences of his/her actions.
Creates a habit or character in the actor. A habit
is Disposition that allows us to do things more
easily and readily. We become what we will.
Amoral experience is attained which influences
all future actions.

The link between Freedom,
Responsibility and Dignity
• Man being born inherently free, means that
human freedom is responsible freedom.
• Responsibility means that we are then
accountable for the effects of our actions.
Dignity means the respect one earns through
his/her actions. We are the measure of our
own dignity.

The Link cont’d
• Man being a free and rational being, who wills
what he/she wants, should act responsibly/in an
acceptable manner because he/she is
accountable for the outcome of his/her actions
in that society respects, despises us according
how we act. Our freedom is meant to perfect us,
lead us to self realization and determination;
because man’s actions expresses what you want
to become. Man can use freedom to be happy
and get self fulfillment or use it to get frustrated
and get to self degradation.

moral judgment
• Where and does moral judgment begin in a
human being?
• Kohlberg Lawrence(1927-1987) says that a
person’s ability to deal with moral issues is not
formed all at once
• The ability to think morally develops in three
stages

Kohlberg’s three stages of moral
judgment
1. The Pre- conventional stage: A level where one
judges something right or wrong because parents
say so. A child is rewarded or punished
accordingly.
• Therefore children start to learn distinguish what
is right from wrong according to how they are
punished for bad acts or rewarded for good ones.
• Moral action is essentially the avoidance of
punishment.

judgment Cont’d
2. conventional stage: Something is right/wrong
according to what family, peers, nation, or
various groups believe in.
• It is interpersonal and conformity driven
• Being moral is being good in your own eyes and
in the eyes of others
• What majority thinks is right is right
• One views authority and obedience to social
order as important
• Being good is doing one’s duty, showing respect
for authority etc
• Laws are unquestionably accepted and obeyed

judgment Cont’d
• Post-conventional stage: One judges something right
or wrong from a universal point of view.
• Individuals are viewed as holding different opinions
and values
• Laws are regarded as social contracts not rigid
dictums. Therefore although laws should be respected,
individual rights sometimes supersede the laws.
• It dwells on universal principles that would appeal to
any reasonable person’s inner conscience. e.g. not
killing an innocent person, justice/ fairness, honesty etc
Unfortunately, many people remain at the conventional
stage

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