This document summarizes examples used to illustrate concepts from game theory and decision theory, including:
1) Games against nature involving a single agent making decisions under uncertainty.
2) Non-cooperative games involving two or more autonomous agents making decisions simultaneously without cooperation. Examples include friends trying to see each other and prisoners in a prisoner's dilemma.
3) Equilibrium concepts in game theory including dominant strategies, Nash equilibria, mixed strategies, and Pareto optimal outcomes.
2. Kim
Home
Chris Home (0,0)
Beach (1,0)
Each player has a set of strategies (={Home,Beach} for both players in this example). Specifying one
strategy i for the row player (Chris) and one strategy j for the column player (Kim) yields an outcome,
which is represented as a pair of payoffs (Rij,Cij), where Rij is the utility the row player receives, and Cij
is the utility the column player receives.
In this example, going to the beach is a (strictly) dominant strategy for each player, because it always
yields the best outcome, no matter what the other player does. Thus, if the players are both maximizing
their individual expected utilities, each will go to the beach. So BeachBeach is a dominant strategy
equilibrium for this game. Because of this, Kim and Chris, if they are rational, do not need to cooperate
(make an agreement) ahead of time. Each can just pursue their own interest, and the best outcome will
occur for both.
Example 3 "Friends" with asymmetric preferences
Now consider Betty and John. John likes Betty, but Betty doesn't like John that much. Each knows this,
and neither wants to call the other before deciding what to do this afternoon: stay at their respective
homes or go to the neighborhood swimming pool. Here is the normal form:
John
Home
Betty Home (2,0)
Pool (3,0)
In this case, Betty's best strategy depends on what John does. But if she assumes John is rational, she will
reason that he will not stay home, because going to the pool is a dominant strategy for him. Knowing
this, she can decide to stay home (because 2>1). This is called iterated dominance. In this example,
Betty gets higher utility than John because of their relative preferences, and John gets less utility than he
would have if Betty wanted to be with him.
In this example, PoolHome (3,0), HomePool (2,1), and PoolPool (1,2) are all Pareto optimal
outcomes. An outcome is Pareto optimal (or efficient) if no agent can be made better off than that
outcome without making another agent worse off. The equilibrium outcomes in both this example and
the previous one are Pareto optimal.
Example 4 Prisoners' dilemma
Consider Stan and Leland, two prisoners who have each been offered a deal to turn state's witness (defect)
against the other. They can't communicate. They had orginally agreed to remain in solidarity, i.e. not
testify against each other, but since the agreement cannot be enforced, each must choose whether to honor
it. If both remain in solidarity, then they will each only be convicted of a minor chage. If only one
defects, then the state will throw the book at the other and let the defector go. If they both defect, each
will get convicted of a serious charge. The payoff matrix (higher positive utility implies a better
outcome) is as follows:
3. Leland
Solidarity
Stan Solidarity (3,3)
Defection (4,1)
In this game, the strategy of defection is weakly dominant for each player, meaning that whatever the
other player does, defecting yields an outcome at least as good and possibly better than remaining in
solidarity would. Note that if the bottom right cell payoffs were (2,2) instead of (1,1), then defecting
would be strictly dominant for each player. Either way, DefectionDefection is a dominant strategy
equilibrium. However, it is not Pareto optimal. Both players could be made better off if neither defected
against the other.
This is an example of a social dilemma: a situation in which each agent's autonomous maximization of
selfutility leads to an inefficient outcome. Such a situation can occur for any number of people, not just
two. An agreement by two people to trade with each other (involving goods, services, and/or money)
set's up a prisoners' dilemmatype game whenever the agreement cannot be enforced.
Example 5 Coordination
Let's go back to Chris and Kim. They are going to the same conference, and each is expecting the other
to be there, but they haven't seen each other yet. The conferees have their choice of two activities on the
first afternoon: swimming or hiking. They both hope to see each other if they don't they will have no
fun, and each prefers swimming over hiking. They must each decide what to do before knowing where
the other is going. Here is the normal form:
Kim
Swim
Chris Swim (2,2)
Hike (0,0)
The best outcome is obviously SwimSwim, but going swimming is not dominant for either player. Both
SwimSwim and HikeHike have the property that each player's strategy is the best (or tied for the best)
response to the other player's strategy in that pairing. This defines a more general equilibrium notion
called the Nash equilibrium. The dominance equilibria of examples 13 are all Nash equilibria as well.
A third equilibrium exists in this game involving what are called mixed strategies. A mixed strategy is a
probability distribution over the pure strategies (which are Swim and Hike for each player in this
example). (Note that the players do not have to have the same set of strategies available to them, even
though that has been the case in all our examples.) In this example, if each player individually throws a
die and goes swimming if the die comes up 1 or 2, and goes hiking if the die comes up 3, 4, 5, or 6, the
resulting expected utility (2/3 for each player) cannot be improved upon for either player given that the
other player uses this strategy.
In 1950, John Nash (depicted somewhat fictitiously in the film A Beautiful Mind the book is more
accurate!) proved that every finite game, involving any number of players, has at least one (Nash)
equilibrium, though there might not be any that involve only pure strategies for all players. In this
example, there are three equilibria: the mixed strategy equilibrium (Swim,1/3; Hike,2/3)
(Swim,1/3;Hike,2/3), and two pure strategy equilibria SwimSwim and HikeHike.