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Lecture Notes for Device management in Operating Systems

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girmay Gebray
girmay Gebray

Device management allows the OS to provide a uniform interface for accessing different hardware devices. It manages I/O devices through device drivers that hide the complexity of devices from the OS. Devices use memory-mapped I/O or dedicated addresses. Devices are accessed through polling, interrupts, DMA, or double buffering. Hard disks have complex internal structures like platters, tracks, sectors, and zones, and disk performance depends on seek time, rotational latency, and transfer rate. Disk scheduling algorithms like SSTF aim to minimize seek distances.

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Device Management
So far We have covered CPU and memory management Computing is not interesting without I/Os Device management: the OS component that manages hardware devices Provides a uniform interface to access devices with different physical characteristics Optimize the performance of individual devices
I/O hardware I/O device hardware Many varieties Device controller Conversion a block of bytes and I/O operations Performs error correction if necessary Expose hardware registers to control the device Typically have four registers: Data-in register to be read to get input Data-out register to be written to send output Status register (allows the status of the device to be checked) Control register (controls the command the device performs)
Device Addressing How the CPU addresses the device registers? Two approaches Dedicated range of device addresses in the physical memory Requires special hardware instructions associated with individual devices Memory-mapped I/O: makes no distinction between device addresses and memory addresses Devices can be accessed the same way as normal memory, with the same set of hardware instructions
Device Addressing Illustrated Primary memory Device 1 Device 2 Memory addresses Memory-mapped I/Os Primary memory Device addresses Separate device addresses
Ways to Access a Device How to input and output data to and from an I/O device? Polling: a CPU repeatedly checks the status of a device for exchanging data + Simple - Busy-waiting
Ways to Access a Device Interrupt-driven I/Os: A device controller notifies the corresponding device driver when the device is available + More efficient use of CPU cycles - Data copying and movements - Slow for character devices (i.e., one interrupt per keyboard input)
Ways to Access a Device Direct memory access (DMA): uses an additional controller to perform data movements + CPU is not involved in copying data - I/O device is much more complicated (need to have the ability to access memory). - A process cannot access in-transit data
Ways to Access a Device Double buffering: uses two buffers. While one is being used, the other is being filled. Analogy: pipelining Extensively used for graphics and animation So a viewer does not see the line-by-line scanning
Device Driver An OS component that is responsible for hiding the complexity of an I/O device So that the OS can access various devices in a uniform manner
Types of IO devices Two categories A block device stores information in fixed-size blocks, each one with its own address e.g., disks A character device delivers or accepts a stream of characters, and individual characters are not addressable e.g., keyboards, printers, network cards Device driver provides interface for these two types of devices Other OS components see block devices and character devices, but not the details of the devices. How to effectively utilize the device is the responsibility of the device driver
Device Driver Illustrated User applications Various OS components Device drivers Device controllers I/O devices User level OS level Hardware level
Disk as An Example Device 30-year-old storage technology Incredibly complicated A modern drive 250,000 lines of micro code
Disk Characteristics Disk platters: coated with magnetic materials for recording Disk platters
Disk Characteristics Disk arm: moves a comb of disk heads Only one disk head is active for reading/writing Disk platters Disk arm Disk heads
Hard Disk Trivia Aerodynamically designed to fly As close to the surface as possible No room for air molecules Therefore, hard drives are filled with special inert gas If head touches the surface Head crash Scrapes off magnetic information
Disk Characteristics Each disk platter is divided into concentric tracks Disk platters Disk arm Disk heads Track
Disk Characteristics A track is further divided into sectors. A sector is the smallest unit of disk storage Disk platters Disk arm Disk heads Track Sector
Disk Characteristics A cylinder consists of all tracks with a given disk arm position Disk platters Disk arm Disk heads Track Sector Cylinder
Disk Characteristics Cylinders are further divided into zones Disk platters Disk arm Disk heads Track Sector Cylinder Zones
Disk Characteristics Zone-bit recording: zones near the edge of a disk store more information (higher bandwidth) Disk platters Disk arm Disk heads Track Sector Cylinder Zones
More About Hard Drives Than You Ever Want to Know Track skew: starting position of each track is slightly skewed Minimize rotational delay when sequentially transferring bytes across tracks Thermo-calibrations: periodically performed to account for changes of disk radius due to temperature changes Typically 100 to 1,000 bits are inserted between sectors to account for minor inaccuracies
Disk Access Time Seek time: the time to position disk heads (~8 msec on average) Rotational latency: the time to rotate the target sector to underneath the head Assume 7,200 rotations per minute (RPM) 7,200 / 60 = 120 rotations per second 1/120 = ~8 msec per rotation Average rotational delay is ~4 msec
Disk Access Time Transfer time: the time to transfer bytes Assumptions: 58 Mbytes/sec 4-Kbyte disk blocks Time to transfer a block takes 0.07 msec Disk access time Seek time + rotational delay + transfer time
Disk Performance Metrics Latency Seek time + rotational delay Bandwidth Bytes transferred / disk access time
Examples of Disk Access Times If disk blocks are randomly accessed Average disk access time = ~12 msec Assume 4-Kbyte blocks 4 Kbyte / 12 msec = ~340 Kbyte/sec If disk blocks of the same cylinder are randomly accessed without disk seeks Average disk access time = ~4 msec 4 Kbyte / 4 msec = ~ 1 Mbyte/sec
Examples of Disk Access Times If disk blocks are accessed sequentially Without seeks and rotational delays Bandwidth: 58 Mbytes/sec Key to good disk performance Minimize seek time and rotational latency
Disk Tradeoffs Larger sector size better bandwidth Wasteful if only 1 byte out of 1 Mbyte is needed Sector size Space utilization Transfer rate 1 byte 8 bits/1008 bits (0.8%) 80 bytes/sec (1 byte / 12 msec) 4 Kbytes 4096 bytes/4221 bytes (97%) 340 Kbytes/sec (4 Kbytes / 12 msec) 1 Mbyte (~100%) 58 Mbytes/sec (peak bandwidth)
Disk Controller Few popular standards IDE (integrated device electronics) ATA (AT attachment interface) SCSI (small computer systems interface) Differences Performance Parallelism
Disk Device Driver Major goal: reduce seek time for disk accesses Schedule disk request to minimize disk arm movements
Disk Arm Scheduling Policies First come, first serve (FCFS): requests are served in the order of arrival + Fair among requesters - Poor for accesses to random disk blocks Shortest seek time first (SSTF): picks the request that is closest to the current disk arm position + Good at reducing seeks - May result in starvation
Disk Arm Scheduling Policies SCAN: takes the closest request in the direction of travel (an example of elevator algorithm) + no starvation - a new request can wait for almost two full scans of the disk
Disk Arm Scheduling Policies Circular SCAN (C-SCAN): disk arm always serves requests by scanning in one direction. Once the arm finishes scanning for one direction Returns to the 0th track for the next round of scanning
First Come, First Serve Request queue: 3, 6, 1, 0, 7 Head start position: 2 Total seek distance: 1 + 3 + 5 + 1 + 7 = 17 Tracks 0 5 4 3 2 1 6 7 Time
Shortest Seek Distance First Request queue: 3, 6, 1, 0, 7 Head start position: 2 Total seek distance: 1 + 2 + 1 + 6 + 1 = 10 Tracks 0 5 4 3 2 1 6 7 Time
SCAN Request queue: 3, 6, 1, 0, 7 Head start position: 2 Total seek distance: 1 + 1 + 3 + 3 + 1 = 9 Time Tracks 0 5 4 3 2 1 6 7
C-SCAN Request queue: 3, 6, 1, 0, 7 Head start position: 2 Total seek distance: 1 + 3 + 1 + 7 + 1 = 13 Time Tracks 0 5 4 3 2 1 6 7
Look and C-Look Similar to SCAN and C-SCAN the arm goes only as far as the final request in each direction, then turns around Look for a request before continuing to move in a given direction.

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Lecture Notes for Device management in Operating Systems

  • 2. So far We have covered CPU and memory management Computing is not interesting without I/Os Device management: the OS component that manages hardware devices Provides a uniform interface to access devices with different physical characteristics Optimize the performance of individual devices
  • 3. I/O hardware I/O device hardware Many varieties Device controller Conversion a block of bytes and I/O operations Performs error correction if necessary Expose hardware registers to control the device Typically have four registers: Data-in register to be read to get input Data-out register to be written to send output Status register (allows the status of the device to be checked) Control register (controls the command the device performs)
  • 4. Device Addressing How the CPU addresses the device registers? Two approaches Dedicated range of device addresses in the physical memory Requires special hardware instructions associated with individual devices Memory-mapped I/O: makes no distinction between device addresses and memory addresses Devices can be accessed the same way as normal memory, with the same set of hardware instructions
  • 5. Device Addressing Illustrated Primary memory Device 1 Device 2 Memory addresses Memory-mapped I/Os Primary memory Device addresses Separate device addresses
  • 6. Ways to Access a Device How to input and output data to and from an I/O device? Polling: a CPU repeatedly checks the status of a device for exchanging data + Simple - Busy-waiting
  • 7. Ways to Access a Device Interrupt-driven I/Os: A device controller notifies the corresponding device driver when the device is available + More efficient use of CPU cycles - Data copying and movements - Slow for character devices (i.e., one interrupt per keyboard input)
  • 8. Ways to Access a Device Direct memory access (DMA): uses an additional controller to perform data movements + CPU is not involved in copying data - I/O device is much more complicated (need to have the ability to access memory). - A process cannot access in-transit data
  • 9. Ways to Access a Device Double buffering: uses two buffers. While one is being used, the other is being filled. Analogy: pipelining Extensively used for graphics and animation So a viewer does not see the line-by-line scanning
  • 10. Device Driver An OS component that is responsible for hiding the complexity of an I/O device So that the OS can access various devices in a uniform manner
  • 11. Types of IO devices Two categories A block device stores information in fixed-size blocks, each one with its own address e.g., disks A character device delivers or accepts a stream of characters, and individual characters are not addressable e.g., keyboards, printers, network cards Device driver provides interface for these two types of devices Other OS components see block devices and character devices, but not the details of the devices. How to effectively utilize the device is the responsibility of the device driver
  • 12. Device Driver Illustrated User applications Various OS components Device drivers Device controllers I/O devices User level OS level Hardware level
  • 13. Disk as An Example Device 30-year-old storage technology Incredibly complicated A modern drive 250,000 lines of micro code
  • 14. Disk Characteristics Disk platters: coated with magnetic materials for recording Disk platters
  • 15. Disk Characteristics Disk arm: moves a comb of disk heads Only one disk head is active for reading/writing Disk platters Disk arm Disk heads
  • 16. Hard Disk Trivia Aerodynamically designed to fly As close to the surface as possible No room for air molecules Therefore, hard drives are filled with special inert gas If head touches the surface Head crash Scrapes off magnetic information
  • 17. Disk Characteristics Each disk platter is divided into concentric tracks Disk platters Disk arm Disk heads Track
  • 18. Disk Characteristics A track is further divided into sectors. A sector is the smallest unit of disk storage Disk platters Disk arm Disk heads Track Sector
  • 19. Disk Characteristics A cylinder consists of all tracks with a given disk arm position Disk platters Disk arm Disk heads Track Sector Cylinder
  • 20. Disk Characteristics Cylinders are further divided into zones Disk platters Disk arm Disk heads Track Sector Cylinder Zones
  • 21. Disk Characteristics Zone-bit recording: zones near the edge of a disk store more information (higher bandwidth) Disk platters Disk arm Disk heads Track Sector Cylinder Zones
  • 22. More About Hard Drives Than You Ever Want to Know Track skew: starting position of each track is slightly skewed Minimize rotational delay when sequentially transferring bytes across tracks Thermo-calibrations: periodically performed to account for changes of disk radius due to temperature changes Typically 100 to 1,000 bits are inserted between sectors to account for minor inaccuracies
  • 23. Disk Access Time Seek time: the time to position disk heads (~8 msec on average) Rotational latency: the time to rotate the target sector to underneath the head Assume 7,200 rotations per minute (RPM) 7,200 / 60 = 120 rotations per second 1/120 = ~8 msec per rotation Average rotational delay is ~4 msec
  • 24. Disk Access Time Transfer time: the time to transfer bytes Assumptions: 58 Mbytes/sec 4-Kbyte disk blocks Time to transfer a block takes 0.07 msec Disk access time Seek time + rotational delay + transfer time
  • 25. Disk Performance Metrics Latency Seek time + rotational delay Bandwidth Bytes transferred / disk access time
  • 26. Examples of Disk Access Times If disk blocks are randomly accessed Average disk access time = ~12 msec Assume 4-Kbyte blocks 4 Kbyte / 12 msec = ~340 Kbyte/sec If disk blocks of the same cylinder are randomly accessed without disk seeks Average disk access time = ~4 msec 4 Kbyte / 4 msec = ~ 1 Mbyte/sec
  • 27. Examples of Disk Access Times If disk blocks are accessed sequentially Without seeks and rotational delays Bandwidth: 58 Mbytes/sec Key to good disk performance Minimize seek time and rotational latency
  • 28. Disk Tradeoffs Larger sector size better bandwidth Wasteful if only 1 byte out of 1 Mbyte is needed Sector size Space utilization Transfer rate 1 byte 8 bits/1008 bits (0.8%) 80 bytes/sec (1 byte / 12 msec) 4 Kbytes 4096 bytes/4221 bytes (97%) 340 Kbytes/sec (4 Kbytes / 12 msec) 1 Mbyte (~100%) 58 Mbytes/sec (peak bandwidth)
  • 29. Disk Controller Few popular standards IDE (integrated device electronics) ATA (AT attachment interface) SCSI (small computer systems interface) Differences Performance Parallelism
  • 30. Disk Device Driver Major goal: reduce seek time for disk accesses Schedule disk request to minimize disk arm movements
  • 31. Disk Arm Scheduling Policies First come, first serve (FCFS): requests are served in the order of arrival + Fair among requesters - Poor for accesses to random disk blocks Shortest seek time first (SSTF): picks the request that is closest to the current disk arm position + Good at reducing seeks - May result in starvation
  • 32. Disk Arm Scheduling Policies SCAN: takes the closest request in the direction of travel (an example of elevator algorithm) + no starvation - a new request can wait for almost two full scans of the disk
  • 33. Disk Arm Scheduling Policies Circular SCAN (C-SCAN): disk arm always serves requests by scanning in one direction. Once the arm finishes scanning for one direction Returns to the 0th track for the next round of scanning
  • 34. First Come, First Serve Request queue: 3, 6, 1, 0, 7 Head start position: 2 Total seek distance: 1 + 3 + 5 + 1 + 7 = 17 Tracks 0 5 4 3 2 1 6 7 Time
  • 35. Shortest Seek Distance First Request queue: 3, 6, 1, 0, 7 Head start position: 2 Total seek distance: 1 + 2 + 1 + 6 + 1 = 10 Tracks 0 5 4 3 2 1 6 7 Time
  • 36. SCAN Request queue: 3, 6, 1, 0, 7 Head start position: 2 Total seek distance: 1 + 1 + 3 + 3 + 1 = 9 Time Tracks 0 5 4 3 2 1 6 7
  • 37. C-SCAN Request queue: 3, 6, 1, 0, 7 Head start position: 2 Total seek distance: 1 + 3 + 1 + 7 + 1 = 13 Time Tracks 0 5 4 3 2 1 6 7
  • 38. Look and C-Look Similar to SCAN and C-SCAN the arm goes only as far as the final request in each direction, then turns around Look for a request before continuing to move in a given direction.
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