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DR. S. SRINIVASARAGAVAN
PROFESSOR & HEAD
DEPT. OF LIBRARY & INFORMATION
SCIENCE
BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY
TIRUCHIRAPPALLI  620 024.
Research Methodology
What is research?
 Research can be defined as the search
for knowledge or as any systematic
investigation to establish facts.
Characteristics of Research
 systematic
 logical
 empirical
 reductive
 replicable
Types of Research
 Pure and Applied Research
 Exploratory or Formulative Research
 Descriptive Research
 Diagnostic Study
 Evaluation Studies
 Action Research
 Experimental Research
 Analytical study or statistical Method
 Historical Research
 Surveys
 Case Study
Pure and Applied Research
Pure
 it is the study of search of knowledge.
Applied
 It is the study of finding solution to a
problem.
Purpose of Pure and Applied Research
 Pure
 It can contribute new facts
 It can put theory to the rest
 It may aid in conceptual clarification
 It may integrate previously existing theories.
Applied
 It offers solutions to many practical
problems.
 To find the critical factors in a practical
problem.
Exploratory or Formulative Research
Exploratory
Exploratory research is preliminary study of
an unfamiliar problem about which the
researcher has little or no knowledge.
Purpose
 To Generate new ideas
 To increase the researchers familiarity with
the problem
 To Make a precise formulation of the
problem
 To gather information for clarifying
concepts
 To determine whether it is feasible to
attempt the study.
Descriptive Research
 Descriptive study is a fact- finding investigation
with adequate interpretation.
 It is the simplest type of research.
 It is designed to gather descriptive information and
provides information for formulating more
sophisticated studies
 Data are collected using observation, interview and
mail questionnaire.
Purpose
 It can focus directly on a theoretical point.
 It can highlight important methodological aspects
of data collection and interpretation.
 It obtained in a research may be useful for
prediction about areas of social life outside in the
boundaries of research.
 Descriptive studies are valuable in providing facts
needed for planning social action programmes.
Diagnostic Study
 It is directed towards discovering what is
happening, why is it happening and what
can be done about.
 It aims at identifying the causes of a
problem and the possible solutions for it.
Purpose
 This study may also be concerned with
discovering and testing whether certain
variables are associated.
 To determine the frequency with which
something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else.
Evaluation Studies
 It is one type of applied research.
 It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or
economic programmes implemented or for assessing
the impact of developmental projects area.
 The determination of the results attained by some
activity designed to accomplish some valued goal or
objectives.
Purpose
 It directed to assess or appraise the quality and
quantity of an activity and its performance.
 To specify its attributes and conditions required for
its success.
Action Research
 Researcher attempts to study action. E.g. Eradication
of Malariya, Maritime Navigation
 Action research is a reflective process of progressive
problem solving led by individuals working with
others in teams or as part of a "community of
practice" to improve the way they address issues and
solve problems
Purpose
 A baseline survey of the pre-action situation
 A feasibility study of the proposed action programme
 Planning and launching the programme
 Concurrent evaluation of the programme
 Making modifications and changes in the programme.
Experimental Research
 Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such as
sociology and psychology, physics, chemistry, biology and
medicine etc.
 It is a systematic and scientific approach to research in
which the researcher manipulates one or more variables, and
controls and measures any change in other variables.
Purpose
 Experiments are conducted to be able to predict
phenomenons.
 To maintain control over all factors
 A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to
test his hypothesis
Analytical Study
 Analytical study is a system of procedures and
techniques of analysis applied to quantitative data.
 A system of mathematical models or statistical
techniques applicable to numerical data.
 Ex. Scientometrics
Purpose
 It aims at testing hypothesis and specifying and
interpreting relationship.
 It concentrates on analyzing data in depth and
examining relationships from various angles by
bringing in as many relevant variables as possible in
the analysis plan.
Historical Research
 The systematic collection and evaluation of data related to
past occurrences in order to describe causes, effects, and
trends of those events that may help explain present
events and anticipate future events.
 Data is often archival-including newspaper clippings,
photographs, etc.- and may include interviews.
Purpose
 To draw explanations and generalizations from the past
trends in order to understand the present and to anticipate
the future.
 It enables us to grasp our relationship with the past and to
plan more intelligently for the future.
 The past contains the key to the present and the past and the
present influences the future.
 It helps us in visualizing the society as a dynamic organism
and its structures and functions as evolving, steadily
growing and undergoing change and transformation.
Survey Research
 Survey research is one of the most important areas of
measurement in applied social research. The broad area of
survey research encompasses any measurement
procedures that involve asking questions of respondents.
A "survey" can be anything form a short paper-and-pencil
feedback form to an intensive one-on-one in-depth
interview.
Purpose
 It is always conducted in a natural setting.
 It seeks responses directly from the respondents.
 It can cover a very large population
 A survey may involve an extensive study or an
intensive study.
 A survey covers a definite geographical area, a city,
district, state
Case Study
 A case study is a research methodology common in social
science.
 It is based on an in-depth investigation of a single
individual, group, or event to explore causation in order to
find underlying principles
Purpose
 To examine limited number of variables
 case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal
examination of a single instance or event.
 It provides a systematic way of looking at events,
collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the
results
Field research
 Field research has traditionally been thought different
from methods of research conducted in a laboratory or
academic setting.
Purpose
 The advantages of field research are that people are closer
to real world conditions and design the research in the
best way to discover the particular information required.
Research Design
 The term research design means drawing for
research.
 It is a systematic planning of conducting research.
 It aims to achieve goals of the research.
Definition
 as the arrangement of conditions for collection and
analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine the
relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure-by Jahoda
 a master plan, specifying the methods and procedures for
collecting and analyzing the needed information-by
Zikmund
Need and Purpose
 It helps in smooth sailing of the research process.
 It saves the money, manpower and materials.
 It helps the researchers for advance planning and avoids
duplication.
 It helps to modify the research if any difficulties.
 It gives reality to research.
Research Design Process
 Selection of research topic/problem,
 Framing research design,
 Framing sampling design,
 Collection of data,
 Data analysis/editing, coding, processing and
preservation
 Writing research reports
Characteristics of Good Research Design
 Theory-Grounded,
 Environment,
 Feasibility of Implementation,
 Redundancy,
 Efficient.
Cont
 It should be flexible
 It should be economical
 It should be unbiased
 It should fulfill the objectives of the research
 It should be more appropriate to all the aspects of
research.
Cont
 It should guide him to achieve correct results.
 It provides scientific base for his research.
 It also should facilitate to complete the research
work within the stipulated time.
Functions of Research Design
 It provides a blueprint of research.
 It limits (dictates) the boundaries of the research
activities.
 It enables investigation to anticipate potential
problems
Components of Research Design
 Title of the investigation
 Purpose of the study
 Review of related literature
 Statement of the problem
 Scope of the investigation
Cont
 Objectives of the study
 Variables
 Hypothesis
 Selection of sample
 Data Collection
 Analysis of data
Types of Research Design
 Experimental Designs
 Non- Experimental Designs
Experimental Designs
 There are two types
Quasi-experimental
Experimental
Non-Experimental Design
 Case study designs/method.
 Content analysis.
 Ethnography.
 Focus groups.
 Network analysis and sociometry.
Hypotheses
 The purpose of hypothesis testing is to determine
whether there is enough statistical evidence in favor of a
certain belief about a parameter.
 An hypothesis is a preliminary or tentative explanation
or postulate by the researcher of what the researcher
considers the outcome of an investigation will be. It is
an informed/educated guess.
 It indicates the expectations of the researcher regarding
certain variables. It is the most specific way in which
an answer to a problem can be stated.
Define Hypothesis
 A tentative statement about a population
parameter that might be true or wrong
The Difference Between An Hypothesis And A Problem
 Both an hypothesis and a problem contribute to the body of
knowledge which supports or refutes an existing theory.
 An hypothesis differs from a problem.
 A problem is formulated in the form of a question; it serves
as the basis or origin from which an hypothesis is derived.
 An hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem.
 A problem (question) cannot be directly tested, whereas an
hypothesis can be tested and verified.
When is an Hypothesis Formulated
 An hypothesis is formulated after the problem has
been stated and the literature study has been
concluded.
 It is formulated when the researcher is totally aware
of the theoretical and empirical background to the
problem.
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION OF AN HYPOTHESIS
 It offers explanations for the relationships between those
variables that can be empirically tested.
 It furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient background
knowledge to enable him/her to make suggestions in order to
extend existing knowledge.
 It gives direction to an investigation.
 It structures the next phase in the investigation and therefore
furnishes continuity to the examination of the problem.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN HYPOTHESIS
 It should have elucidating power.
 It should strive to furnish an acceptable explanation of the
phenomenon.
 It must be verifiable.
 It must be formulated in simple, understandable terms.
 It should corresponds with existing knowledge.
Types of Hypotheses
1. Descriptive Hypotheses:
 These are propositions that describe the characteristics ( such
as size, form or distribution) of a variable. The variable may
be an object, person, organization etc. ,
e.g., The rate of unemployment among arts graduates is higher than that
of commerce graduates. The educational system is not oriented to
human resource needs of a country.
2. Relational Hypotheses.
 These are propositions which describe the relationship
between tow variables.
e. g. , Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation
Upper  class people have fewer children than lower class
people.
Cont
3. Causal Hypotheses
 It state that the existence of, or a change in, one variable Causes or leads to an
effect on another variable.
 The first variable is called the independent variable, and the latter the
dependent variable.
 When dealing with causal relationships between variables the researcher must
consider the direction in which such relationship flow
e.g: which is cause and which is effect
4. Working Hypotheses
 While planning the study of a problem, hypotheses are formed.
 Initially they may not be very specific. In such cases, they are referred
to as  working hypotheses which are subject to modification as the
investigation proceeds.
Cont
. Null Hypotheses
 This hypotheses are formulated for testing statistical significance,
since, this form is a convenient approach to statistical analysis. As
the test would nullify the null hypotheses.
e.g., : There is a relationship between a familys income and expenditure on
recreation, a null hypothesis may state: There is no relationship between
families income level and expenditure on recreation.
6. Statistical Hypotheses
 These are statements about a statistical population. These are derived
from a sample. These are quantitative in nature in that they are
numerically measurable
eg: Group A is older than B
Cont
Common Sense Hypotheses
 It state the existence of empirical uniformities perceived through day to
day observations.
e.g.,  Shop-assistants in small shops lack motivation
8. Complex Hypotheses
 These aim at testing the existence of logically derived relationships
between empirical uniformities.
e.g., In the early stage human ecology described empirical uniformities in the
distribution of land values, industrial concentrations, types of business and
other phenomena.
9. Analytical Hypotheses:
 It concerned with the relationship of analytic variables. These hypotheses
occur at the highest level of abstraction.
 These specify relationship between changes in one property and changes in
another.
Eg., The study of human fertility might show empirical regularities by wealth,
education, region, and religion.
Characteristics of a Good Hypotheses
 Conceptual Clarity
 Specificity
 Testability
 Availability of Techniques
 Theoretical relevance
 Consistency
 Objectivity
 Simplicity
Sources of Hypotheses
 Theory
 Observation
 Analogies
 Intuition and personal experience
 Findings of studies
 State of Knowledge
 Culture
 Continuity of Research
Sampling
Sampling is the process
of selecting a small number of elements
from a larger defined target group
of elements such that
the information gathered
from the small group will allow judgments
to be made about the larger groups
Basics of Sampling Theory
Population
Element
Defined target
population
Sampling unit
Sampling frame
Sampling Error
Sampling error is any type of bias
that is attributable to mistakes
in either drawing a sample or
determining the sample size
1. Define the Population of Interest
2. Identify a Sampling Frame (if possible)
3. Select a Sampling Method
4. Determine Sample Size
5. Execute the Sampling Plan
Developing a Sampling Plan
 Population of interest is entirely dependent on
Management Problem, Research Problems, and
Research Design.
 Some Bases for Defining Population:
 Geographic Area
 Demographics
 Usage/Lifestyle
 Awareness
Defining Population of Interest
 A list of population elements (people, companies,
houses, cities, etc.) from which units to be sampled
can be selected.
 Difficult to get an accurate list.
 Sample frame error occurs when certain
elements of the population are accidentally
omitted or not included on the list.
 See Survey Sampling International for some good
examples
http://www.surveysampling.com/
Sampling Frame
Sampling Methods
Probability
sampling
Nonprobability
sampling
Types of Sampling Methods
Probability
 Simple random sampling
 Systematic random
sampling
 Stratified random
sampling
 Cluster sampling
Nonprobability
 Convenience sampling
 Judgment sampling
 Quota sampling
 Snowball sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Simple random sampling is a method of
probability sampling in which
every unit has an equal nonzero
chance of being selected
Systematic Random Sampling
Systematic random sampling is a
method of
probability sampling
in which the defined
target population is ordered
and the sample is selected
according to position using a skip interval
Steps in Drawing a Systematic Random Sample
 1: Obtain a list of units that contains an acceptable
frame of the target population
 2: Determine the number of units in the list and the
desired sample size
 3: Compute the skip interval
 4: Determine a random start point
 5: Beginning at the start point, select the units by
choosing each unit that corresponds to the skip
interval
Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified random sampling is a
method of
probability sampling
in which the population is divided
into different subgroups and samples
are selected from each
Steps in Drawing a Stratified Random Sample
 1: Divide the target population into
homogeneous subgroups or strata
 2: Draw random samples fro each stratum
 3: Combine the samples from each stratum into
a single sample of the target population
Cluster Sampling
 Cluster sampling is a sampling technique used when
"natural" groupings are evident in a statistical
population.
 It is often used in marketing research.
 It divide population into Comparable groups: Schools,
Cities etc..
 cluster sampling is to reduce the average cost per
interview
 the technique given more accurate results when most of
the variation in the population is within the groups,
Nonprobability Sampling Methods
Convenience sampling relies
upon convenience and access
Judgment sampling relies upon belief
that participants fit characteristics
Quota sampling emphasizes representation
of specific characteristics
Snowball sampling relies upon respondent
referrals of others with like characteristics
 Convenience samples: samples drawn at the convenience of
the interviewer. People tend to make the selection at familiar
locations and to choose respondents who are like
themselves.
 Judgment samples: samples that require a judgment or an
educated guess on the part of the interviewer as to who
should represent the population. Also, judges (informed
individuals) may be asked to suggest who should be in the
sample.
 Quota samples: samples that set a specific number of
certain types of individuals to be interviewed
 snowball sampling: is a technique for developing a research
sample where existing study subjects recruit future subjects
from among their acquaintances.
Factors to Consider in Sample Design
Research objectives Degree of accuracy
Resources Time frame
Knowledge of
target population Research scope
Statistical analysis needs
70
Data Collection
 Data collection possibilities are wide and varied with
any one method of collection not inherently better
than any other
 Each has pros and cons that must be weighed up in
view of a rich and complex context
71
The Data Collection Process
 All methods of collection require rigorous and
systematic design and execution that includes
 thorough planning
 well considered development
 effective piloting
 weighed modification
 deliberate implementation and execution
 appropriate management and analysis
72
Surveys
 Surveying involves gathering information from
individuals using a questionnaire
 Surveys can
 reach a large number of respondents
 generate standardized, quantifiable, empirical data - as
well as some qualitative data
 and offer confidentiality / anonymity
 Designing survey instruments capable of
generating credible data, however, can be difficult
73
Survey Types
 Surveys can be
 descriptive or explanatory
 involve entire populations or samples of populations
 capture a moment or map trends
 can be administered in a number of ways
74
Survey Construction
 Survey construction involves
 formulating questions and response categories
 writing up background information and instruction
 working through organization and length
 determining layout and design
75
Interviewing
 Interviewing involves asking respondents a series
of open-ended questions
 Interviews can generate both standardized
quantifiable data, and more in-depth qualitative
data
 However, the complexities of people and the
complexities of communication can create many
opportunities for miscommunication and
misinterpretation
76
Interview Types
 Interviews can range from
 formal to informal
 structured to unstructured
 can be one on one or involve groups
77
Conducting Interviews
 When conducting your interviews you will need to
 question, prompt, and probe in ways that help you gather rich
data
 actively listen and make sense of what is being said
 manage the overall process
78
Observation
 Observation relies on the researchers ability to
gather data though their senses - and allows
researchers to document actual behaviour rather
than responses related to behaviour
 However, the observed can act differently when
surveilled, and observations can be tainted by a
researchers worldview
79
Observation Types
 Observation can range from
 non-participant to participant
 candid to covert
 from structured to unstructured
80
The Observation Process
 The observation process is sometimes treated
casually, but is a method that needs to be treated as
rigorously as any other
 The process should include planning, observing,
recording, reflecting, and authenticating
81
Experimentation
 Experimentation explores cause and effect
relationships by manipulating independent variables
in order to see if there is a corresponding effect on a
dependent variable
82
Experimentation
 Pure experimentation requires both a controlled
environment and the use of a randomly assigned
control group
 This can be difficult to achieve in human centred
experiments conducted in the real-world
83
Real-World Experiments
 There are many experiments that can only be carried
out in the messy uncontrolled environments of the
real-world, so the search for cause and effect will
require tradeoffs between real-world contexts and a
controlled environment
84
questionnaire surveys (includes mail)
Advantages:
Quick and easy to administer.
Can get a large amount of information in a short time.
Allows for employee participation.
Does not require trained interviewer.
Relatively less expensive.
Disadvantages:
Quality of information related to the quality of the questionnaire.
Must have high school reading and writing ability to complete one.
Often needs follow-up interview or observation.
May be difficult to construct.
May have low response rate.
Responses may be incomplete.
Responses may be difficult to interpret (open-ended)
Online surveys:
 The use of the Internet has made a huge difference to the way surveys are conducted and has
become a science unto itself.
 quick to implement. Lower cost, higher
85
Face-to-face interviews :
Most informative method of qualitative data collection because
the human interaction of face-to-face interviews provides the opportunity to
probe for insights and build on responses for greater value.
Door-to-door: People are contacted at home and in person (abandoned in
Developed due to high cost of transport, staff)
Street / shopping mall intercepts: Popular in Developed Economies (some
Malls consider a nuisance).
Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the
researcher has ready access to anyone on the planet who has a telephone.
Disadvantages are that the response rate is not as high as the face-to- face
interview but considerably higher than the mailed questionnaire. The
sample may be biased to the extent that people without phones are part of
the population about whom the researcher wants to draw inferences.
86
Web based questionnaires :
A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet based
research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click on an
address that would take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire. This type
of research is often quicker and less detailed. Some disadvantages of this method
include the exclusion of people who do not have a computer or are unable to access a
computer. Also the validity of such surveys are in question as people might be in a
hurry to complete it and so might not give accurate responses.
Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal
interviewing, but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along
a laptop or hand-held computer to enter the information directly into the database.
This method saves time involved in processing the data, as well as saving the
interviewer from carrying around hundreds of questionnaires. However, this type of
data collection method can be expensive to set up and requires that interviewers have
computer and typing skills.
Research Methodology.ppt

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Research Methodology.ppt

  • 1. DR. S. SRINIVASARAGAVAN PROFESSOR & HEAD DEPT. OF LIBRARY & INFORMATION SCIENCE BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY TIRUCHIRAPPALLI 620 024. Research Methodology
  • 2. What is research? Research can be defined as the search for knowledge or as any systematic investigation to establish facts.
  • 3. Characteristics of Research systematic logical empirical reductive replicable
  • 4. Types of Research Pure and Applied Research Exploratory or Formulative Research Descriptive Research Diagnostic Study Evaluation Studies Action Research Experimental Research Analytical study or statistical Method Historical Research Surveys Case Study
  • 5. Pure and Applied Research Pure it is the study of search of knowledge. Applied It is the study of finding solution to a problem.
  • 6. Purpose of Pure and Applied Research Pure It can contribute new facts It can put theory to the rest It may aid in conceptual clarification It may integrate previously existing theories. Applied It offers solutions to many practical problems. To find the critical factors in a practical problem.
  • 7. Exploratory or Formulative Research Exploratory Exploratory research is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge.
  • 8. Purpose To Generate new ideas To increase the researchers familiarity with the problem To Make a precise formulation of the problem To gather information for clarifying concepts To determine whether it is feasible to attempt the study.
  • 9. Descriptive Research Descriptive study is a fact- finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the simplest type of research. It is designed to gather descriptive information and provides information for formulating more sophisticated studies Data are collected using observation, interview and mail questionnaire.
  • 10. Purpose It can focus directly on a theoretical point. It can highlight important methodological aspects of data collection and interpretation. It obtained in a research may be useful for prediction about areas of social life outside in the boundaries of research. Descriptive studies are valuable in providing facts needed for planning social action programmes.
  • 11. Diagnostic Study It is directed towards discovering what is happening, why is it happening and what can be done about. It aims at identifying the causes of a problem and the possible solutions for it.
  • 12. Purpose This study may also be concerned with discovering and testing whether certain variables are associated. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else.
  • 13. Evaluation Studies It is one type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic programmes implemented or for assessing the impact of developmental projects area. The determination of the results attained by some activity designed to accomplish some valued goal or objectives.
  • 14. Purpose It directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an activity and its performance. To specify its attributes and conditions required for its success.
  • 15. Action Research Researcher attempts to study action. E.g. Eradication of Malariya, Maritime Navigation Action research is a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a "community of practice" to improve the way they address issues and solve problems
  • 16. Purpose A baseline survey of the pre-action situation A feasibility study of the proposed action programme Planning and launching the programme Concurrent evaluation of the programme Making modifications and changes in the programme.
  • 17. Experimental Research Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such as sociology and psychology, physics, chemistry, biology and medicine etc. It is a systematic and scientific approach to research in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables, and controls and measures any change in other variables.
  • 18. Purpose Experiments are conducted to be able to predict phenomenons. To maintain control over all factors A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to test his hypothesis
  • 19. Analytical Study Analytical study is a system of procedures and techniques of analysis applied to quantitative data. A system of mathematical models or statistical techniques applicable to numerical data. Ex. Scientometrics
  • 20. Purpose It aims at testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationship. It concentrates on analyzing data in depth and examining relationships from various angles by bringing in as many relevant variables as possible in the analysis plan.
  • 21. Historical Research The systematic collection and evaluation of data related to past occurrences in order to describe causes, effects, and trends of those events that may help explain present events and anticipate future events. Data is often archival-including newspaper clippings, photographs, etc.- and may include interviews.
  • 22. Purpose To draw explanations and generalizations from the past trends in order to understand the present and to anticipate the future. It enables us to grasp our relationship with the past and to plan more intelligently for the future. The past contains the key to the present and the past and the present influences the future. It helps us in visualizing the society as a dynamic organism and its structures and functions as evolving, steadily growing and undergoing change and transformation.
  • 23. Survey Research Survey research is one of the most important areas of measurement in applied social research. The broad area of survey research encompasses any measurement procedures that involve asking questions of respondents. A "survey" can be anything form a short paper-and-pencil feedback form to an intensive one-on-one in-depth interview.
  • 24. Purpose It is always conducted in a natural setting. It seeks responses directly from the respondents. It can cover a very large population A survey may involve an extensive study or an intensive study. A survey covers a definite geographical area, a city, district, state
  • 25. Case Study A case study is a research methodology common in social science. It is based on an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event to explore causation in order to find underlying principles
  • 26. Purpose To examine limited number of variables case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal examination of a single instance or event. It provides a systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the results
  • 27. Field research Field research has traditionally been thought different from methods of research conducted in a laboratory or academic setting. Purpose The advantages of field research are that people are closer to real world conditions and design the research in the best way to discover the particular information required.
  • 28. Research Design The term research design means drawing for research. It is a systematic planning of conducting research. It aims to achieve goals of the research.
  • 29. Definition as the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine the relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure-by Jahoda a master plan, specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed information-by Zikmund
  • 30. Need and Purpose It helps in smooth sailing of the research process. It saves the money, manpower and materials. It helps the researchers for advance planning and avoids duplication. It helps to modify the research if any difficulties. It gives reality to research.
  • 31. Research Design Process Selection of research topic/problem, Framing research design, Framing sampling design, Collection of data, Data analysis/editing, coding, processing and preservation Writing research reports
  • 32. Characteristics of Good Research Design Theory-Grounded, Environment, Feasibility of Implementation, Redundancy, Efficient. Cont
  • 33. It should be flexible It should be economical It should be unbiased It should fulfill the objectives of the research It should be more appropriate to all the aspects of research. Cont
  • 34. It should guide him to achieve correct results. It provides scientific base for his research. It also should facilitate to complete the research work within the stipulated time.
  • 35. Functions of Research Design It provides a blueprint of research. It limits (dictates) the boundaries of the research activities. It enables investigation to anticipate potential problems
  • 36. Components of Research Design Title of the investigation Purpose of the study Review of related literature Statement of the problem Scope of the investigation Cont
  • 37. Objectives of the study Variables Hypothesis Selection of sample Data Collection Analysis of data
  • 38. Types of Research Design Experimental Designs Non- Experimental Designs
  • 39. Experimental Designs There are two types Quasi-experimental Experimental
  • 40. Non-Experimental Design Case study designs/method. Content analysis. Ethnography. Focus groups. Network analysis and sociometry.
  • 41. Hypotheses The purpose of hypothesis testing is to determine whether there is enough statistical evidence in favor of a certain belief about a parameter. An hypothesis is a preliminary or tentative explanation or postulate by the researcher of what the researcher considers the outcome of an investigation will be. It is an informed/educated guess. It indicates the expectations of the researcher regarding certain variables. It is the most specific way in which an answer to a problem can be stated.
  • 42. Define Hypothesis A tentative statement about a population parameter that might be true or wrong
  • 43. The Difference Between An Hypothesis And A Problem Both an hypothesis and a problem contribute to the body of knowledge which supports or refutes an existing theory. An hypothesis differs from a problem. A problem is formulated in the form of a question; it serves as the basis or origin from which an hypothesis is derived. An hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem. A problem (question) cannot be directly tested, whereas an hypothesis can be tested and verified.
  • 44. When is an Hypothesis Formulated An hypothesis is formulated after the problem has been stated and the literature study has been concluded. It is formulated when the researcher is totally aware of the theoretical and empirical background to the problem.
  • 45. PURPOSE AND FUNCTION OF AN HYPOTHESIS It offers explanations for the relationships between those variables that can be empirically tested. It furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient background knowledge to enable him/her to make suggestions in order to extend existing knowledge. It gives direction to an investigation. It structures the next phase in the investigation and therefore furnishes continuity to the examination of the problem.
  • 46. CHARACTERISTICS OF AN HYPOTHESIS It should have elucidating power. It should strive to furnish an acceptable explanation of the phenomenon. It must be verifiable. It must be formulated in simple, understandable terms. It should corresponds with existing knowledge.
  • 47. Types of Hypotheses 1. Descriptive Hypotheses: These are propositions that describe the characteristics ( such as size, form or distribution) of a variable. The variable may be an object, person, organization etc. , e.g., The rate of unemployment among arts graduates is higher than that of commerce graduates. The educational system is not oriented to human resource needs of a country. 2. Relational Hypotheses. These are propositions which describe the relationship between tow variables. e. g. , Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation Upper class people have fewer children than lower class people. Cont
  • 48. 3. Causal Hypotheses It state that the existence of, or a change in, one variable Causes or leads to an effect on another variable. The first variable is called the independent variable, and the latter the dependent variable. When dealing with causal relationships between variables the researcher must consider the direction in which such relationship flow e.g: which is cause and which is effect 4. Working Hypotheses While planning the study of a problem, hypotheses are formed. Initially they may not be very specific. In such cases, they are referred to as working hypotheses which are subject to modification as the investigation proceeds. Cont
  • 49. . Null Hypotheses This hypotheses are formulated for testing statistical significance, since, this form is a convenient approach to statistical analysis. As the test would nullify the null hypotheses. e.g., : There is a relationship between a familys income and expenditure on recreation, a null hypothesis may state: There is no relationship between families income level and expenditure on recreation. 6. Statistical Hypotheses These are statements about a statistical population. These are derived from a sample. These are quantitative in nature in that they are numerically measurable eg: Group A is older than B Cont
  • 50. Common Sense Hypotheses It state the existence of empirical uniformities perceived through day to day observations. e.g., Shop-assistants in small shops lack motivation 8. Complex Hypotheses These aim at testing the existence of logically derived relationships between empirical uniformities. e.g., In the early stage human ecology described empirical uniformities in the distribution of land values, industrial concentrations, types of business and other phenomena. 9. Analytical Hypotheses: It concerned with the relationship of analytic variables. These hypotheses occur at the highest level of abstraction. These specify relationship between changes in one property and changes in another. Eg., The study of human fertility might show empirical regularities by wealth, education, region, and religion.
  • 51. Characteristics of a Good Hypotheses Conceptual Clarity Specificity Testability Availability of Techniques Theoretical relevance Consistency Objectivity Simplicity
  • 52. Sources of Hypotheses Theory Observation Analogies Intuition and personal experience Findings of studies State of Knowledge Culture Continuity of Research
  • 53. Sampling Sampling is the process of selecting a small number of elements from a larger defined target group of elements such that the information gathered from the small group will allow judgments to be made about the larger groups
  • 54. Basics of Sampling Theory Population Element Defined target population Sampling unit Sampling frame
  • 55. Sampling Error Sampling error is any type of bias that is attributable to mistakes in either drawing a sample or determining the sample size
  • 56. 1. Define the Population of Interest 2. Identify a Sampling Frame (if possible) 3. Select a Sampling Method 4. Determine Sample Size 5. Execute the Sampling Plan Developing a Sampling Plan
  • 57. Population of interest is entirely dependent on Management Problem, Research Problems, and Research Design. Some Bases for Defining Population: Geographic Area Demographics Usage/Lifestyle Awareness Defining Population of Interest
  • 58. A list of population elements (people, companies, houses, cities, etc.) from which units to be sampled can be selected. Difficult to get an accurate list. Sample frame error occurs when certain elements of the population are accidentally omitted or not included on the list. See Survey Sampling International for some good examples http://www.surveysampling.com/ Sampling Frame
  • 60. Types of Sampling Methods Probability Simple random sampling Systematic random sampling Stratified random sampling Cluster sampling Nonprobability Convenience sampling Judgment sampling Quota sampling Snowball sampling
  • 61. Simple Random Sampling Simple random sampling is a method of probability sampling in which every unit has an equal nonzero chance of being selected
  • 62. Systematic Random Sampling Systematic random sampling is a method of probability sampling in which the defined target population is ordered and the sample is selected according to position using a skip interval
  • 63. Steps in Drawing a Systematic Random Sample 1: Obtain a list of units that contains an acceptable frame of the target population 2: Determine the number of units in the list and the desired sample size 3: Compute the skip interval 4: Determine a random start point 5: Beginning at the start point, select the units by choosing each unit that corresponds to the skip interval
  • 64. Stratified Random Sampling Stratified random sampling is a method of probability sampling in which the population is divided into different subgroups and samples are selected from each
  • 65. Steps in Drawing a Stratified Random Sample 1: Divide the target population into homogeneous subgroups or strata 2: Draw random samples fro each stratum 3: Combine the samples from each stratum into a single sample of the target population
  • 66. Cluster Sampling Cluster sampling is a sampling technique used when "natural" groupings are evident in a statistical population. It is often used in marketing research. It divide population into Comparable groups: Schools, Cities etc.. cluster sampling is to reduce the average cost per interview the technique given more accurate results when most of the variation in the population is within the groups,
  • 67. Nonprobability Sampling Methods Convenience sampling relies upon convenience and access Judgment sampling relies upon belief that participants fit characteristics Quota sampling emphasizes representation of specific characteristics Snowball sampling relies upon respondent referrals of others with like characteristics
  • 68. Convenience samples: samples drawn at the convenience of the interviewer. People tend to make the selection at familiar locations and to choose respondents who are like themselves. Judgment samples: samples that require a judgment or an educated guess on the part of the interviewer as to who should represent the population. Also, judges (informed individuals) may be asked to suggest who should be in the sample. Quota samples: samples that set a specific number of certain types of individuals to be interviewed snowball sampling: is a technique for developing a research sample where existing study subjects recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances.
  • 69. Factors to Consider in Sample Design Research objectives Degree of accuracy Resources Time frame Knowledge of target population Research scope Statistical analysis needs
  • 70. 70 Data Collection Data collection possibilities are wide and varied with any one method of collection not inherently better than any other Each has pros and cons that must be weighed up in view of a rich and complex context
  • 71. 71 The Data Collection Process All methods of collection require rigorous and systematic design and execution that includes thorough planning well considered development effective piloting weighed modification deliberate implementation and execution appropriate management and analysis
  • 72. 72 Surveys Surveying involves gathering information from individuals using a questionnaire Surveys can reach a large number of respondents generate standardized, quantifiable, empirical data - as well as some qualitative data and offer confidentiality / anonymity Designing survey instruments capable of generating credible data, however, can be difficult
  • 73. 73 Survey Types Surveys can be descriptive or explanatory involve entire populations or samples of populations capture a moment or map trends can be administered in a number of ways
  • 74. 74 Survey Construction Survey construction involves formulating questions and response categories writing up background information and instruction working through organization and length determining layout and design
  • 75. 75 Interviewing Interviewing involves asking respondents a series of open-ended questions Interviews can generate both standardized quantifiable data, and more in-depth qualitative data However, the complexities of people and the complexities of communication can create many opportunities for miscommunication and misinterpretation
  • 76. 76 Interview Types Interviews can range from formal to informal structured to unstructured can be one on one or involve groups
  • 77. 77 Conducting Interviews When conducting your interviews you will need to question, prompt, and probe in ways that help you gather rich data actively listen and make sense of what is being said manage the overall process
  • 78. 78 Observation Observation relies on the researchers ability to gather data though their senses - and allows researchers to document actual behaviour rather than responses related to behaviour However, the observed can act differently when surveilled, and observations can be tainted by a researchers worldview
  • 79. 79 Observation Types Observation can range from non-participant to participant candid to covert from structured to unstructured
  • 80. 80 The Observation Process The observation process is sometimes treated casually, but is a method that needs to be treated as rigorously as any other The process should include planning, observing, recording, reflecting, and authenticating
  • 81. 81 Experimentation Experimentation explores cause and effect relationships by manipulating independent variables in order to see if there is a corresponding effect on a dependent variable
  • 82. 82 Experimentation Pure experimentation requires both a controlled environment and the use of a randomly assigned control group This can be difficult to achieve in human centred experiments conducted in the real-world
  • 83. 83 Real-World Experiments There are many experiments that can only be carried out in the messy uncontrolled environments of the real-world, so the search for cause and effect will require tradeoffs between real-world contexts and a controlled environment
  • 84. 84 questionnaire surveys (includes mail) Advantages: Quick and easy to administer. Can get a large amount of information in a short time. Allows for employee participation. Does not require trained interviewer. Relatively less expensive. Disadvantages: Quality of information related to the quality of the questionnaire. Must have high school reading and writing ability to complete one. Often needs follow-up interview or observation. May be difficult to construct. May have low response rate. Responses may be incomplete. Responses may be difficult to interpret (open-ended) Online surveys: The use of the Internet has made a huge difference to the way surveys are conducted and has become a science unto itself. quick to implement. Lower cost, higher
  • 85. 85 Face-to-face interviews : Most informative method of qualitative data collection because the human interaction of face-to-face interviews provides the opportunity to probe for insights and build on responses for greater value. Door-to-door: People are contacted at home and in person (abandoned in Developed due to high cost of transport, staff) Street / shopping mall intercepts: Popular in Developed Economies (some Malls consider a nuisance). Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the researcher has ready access to anyone on the planet who has a telephone. Disadvantages are that the response rate is not as high as the face-to- face interview but considerably higher than the mailed questionnaire. The sample may be biased to the extent that people without phones are part of the population about whom the researcher wants to draw inferences.
  • 86. 86 Web based questionnaires : A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet based research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click on an address that would take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire. This type of research is often quicker and less detailed. Some disadvantages of this method include the exclusion of people who do not have a computer or are unable to access a computer. Also the validity of such surveys are in question as people might be in a hurry to complete it and so might not give accurate responses. Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal interviewing, but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop or hand-held computer to enter the information directly into the database. This method saves time involved in processing the data, as well as saving the interviewer from carrying around hundreds of questionnaires. However, this type of data collection method can be expensive to set up and requires that interviewers have computer and typing skills.