rukhsar-160518150528.pdf
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Phonetics is the study of speech sounds and their production, transmission, and reception. It deals with describing, classifying, and transcribing the sounds used in human speech. Phonetics analyzes the basic physical segments of speech, called phones, and the abstract linguistic units called phonemes that distinguish meaning. Phones are transcribed between brackets [ ] while phonemes use slashes / /. There are several types of speech sounds classified by their place of articulation in the mouth, including bilabials, labiodentals, alveolars, velars, interdentals, and palatals.
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![We use slashes / / for phonemes.
We use brackets [ ] for phones.
The vowel phoneme in the words bead and
bean is represented as /i/ The phone is
represented as [i].](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rukhsar-160518150528-230106153840-0125b223/85/rukhsar-160518150528-pdf-9-320.jpg)
![[b], [p], [m], [f] and [v] are labials When we
produce [b], [p], or [m], we articulate them by
bringing together both lips. These speech
sounds are called bilabials.When we produce
[f] and [v], we articulate by touching the
bottom lip to the upper teeth. These speech
sounds are called labiodentals](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rukhsar-160518150528-230106153840-0125b223/85/rukhsar-160518150528-pdf-22-320.jpg)
![[t], [d], [s], [z], [n], and [l] are alveolars. When we
produce these sounds we raise the tip of our
tongue toward the hard palate and touch the
alveolar ridge. These speech sounds are called
alveolars When we produce [f] and [v], we
articulate by touching the bottom lip to the
upper teeth. These speech sounds are called
labiodentals](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rukhsar-160518150528-230106153840-0125b223/85/rukhsar-160518150528-pdf-23-320.jpg)
![[k],[g],[],[w]are velars.
When we produce these sounds we raise the
back of our tongue toward the soft palate or the
velum. These speech sounds are called velars.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rukhsar-160518150528-230106153840-0125b223/85/rukhsar-160518150528-pdf-24-320.jpg)
![[] and [丹] are interdentals.
When we produce these sounds we insert the
tip of our tongue between the upper and the
lower teeth. These speech sounds are called
interdentals.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rukhsar-160518150528-230106153840-0125b223/85/rukhsar-160518150528-pdf-25-320.jpg)
![[] [] [払] [覆] are palatals.
When we produce these sounds we raise the
front part of our tongue to a point on the hard
palate just behind the alveolar ridge. These
speech sounds are called palatals.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rukhsar-160518150528-230106153840-0125b223/85/rukhsar-160518150528-pdf-26-320.jpg)
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**Introduction**
In the digital age, data privacy has become a crucial topic for individuals and organizations. As technology advances, the amount of personal and sensitive data being collected, stored, and processed continues to grow. Protecting this data from unauthorized access, breaches, and misuse is essential to maintaining trust and compliance with legal requirements.
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**The Rise and Impact of Large Language Models (LLMs)**
**Introduction**
In the rapidly evolving landscape of artificial intelligence (AI), one of the most groundbreaking advancements has been the development of Large Language Models (LLMs). These AI systems, trained on massive amounts of text data, have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in understanding, generating, and manipulating human language. LLMs have transformed industries, reshaped the way people interact with technology, and raised ethical concerns regarding their usage. This essay delves into the history, development, applications, challenges, and future of LLMs, providing a comprehensive understanding of their significance.
**Historical Background and Development**
The foundation of LLMs is built on decades of research in natural language processing (NLP) and machine learning (ML). Early language models were relatively simple and rule-based, relying on statistical methods to predict word sequences. However, the emergence of deep learning, particularly the introduction of neural networks, revolutionized NLP. The introduction of recurrent neural networks (RNNs) and long short-term memory (LSTM) networks in the late 1990s and early 2000s allowed for better sequential data processing.
The breakthrough moment for LLMs came with the development of Transformer architectures, introduced in the seminal 2017 paper "Attention Is All You Need" by Vaswani et al. The Transformer model enabled more efficient parallel processing and improved context understanding. This led to the creation of models like BERT (Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers) and OpenAIs GPT (Generative Pre-trained Transformer) series, which have since set new benchmarks in AI-driven text generation and comprehension.
**Core Mechanisms of LLMs**
LLMs rely on deep neural networks trained on extensive datasets comprising books, articles, websites, and other textual resources. The training process involves:
1. **Tokenization:** Breaking down text into smaller units (words, subwords, or characters) to be processed by the model.
2. **Pretraining:** The model learns general language patterns through unsupervised learning, predicting missing words or the next sequence in a text.
3. **Fine-tuning:** Adjusting the model for specific tasks, such as summarization, translation, or question-answering, using supervised learning.
4. **Inference:** The trained model generates text based on user input, leveraging probabilistic predictions to produce coherent responses.
Through these mechanisms, LLMs can perform a wide range of linguistic tasks with human-like proficiency.
**Applications of LLMs**
LLMs have found applications across various domains, including but not limited to:
1. **Content Generation:** LLMs assist in writing articles, blogs, poetry, and even code, helping content creators enhance productivity.
2. **Customer Support:** Chatbots and virtual assistants powered by LLMs provide automated yet cont
rukhsar-160518150528.pdf
- 1. Rukhsar Asif Muhammad Hamza Arooba Aslam
- 2. Phonetics is the science of speech. It deal with the study of characteristics of human sound, especially those sounds used in speech, and methods for their description, classification and transcription.
- 3. Is the term for the description and classification of speech sounds, particularly how sounds are produced, transmitted and received.
- 4. produce sounds which form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign accent, to make up new words, To know what is or is not a sound in ones language to know what different sound strings may present.
- 5. Phonetics The study of speech sounds. Phonology The study of the way speech sounds form patterns.
- 6. Segment is any discrete unit that can be identified, either physically or auditorily, in the stream of speech. In phonetics, the smallest perceptible segment is a phone. In phonology, smallest segment is phonemes.
- 7. A speech segment that possesses distinct physical or perceptual properties. A particular occurrence of a speech segment. The basic unit revealed via phonetic speech analysis
- 8. In human language, a phoneme is the smallest unit of speech that distinguishes meaning. Phonemes are not the physical segments themselves, but abstractions of them. The /t/ sound found in words like tip, stand, writer, and cat are examples of phonemes.
- 9. We use slashes / / for phonemes. We use brackets [ ] for phones. The vowel phoneme in the words bead and bean is represented as /i/ The phone is represented as [i].
- 21. Labials (bilabials, labiodentals) Alveolars Velars Interdentals Palatals Glottals
- 22. [b], [p], [m], [f] and [v] are labials When we produce [b], [p], or [m], we articulate them by bringing together both lips. These speech sounds are called bilabials.When we produce [f] and [v], we articulate by touching the bottom lip to the upper teeth. These speech sounds are called labiodentals
- 23. [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], and [l] are alveolars. When we produce these sounds we raise the tip of our tongue toward the hard palate and touch the alveolar ridge. These speech sounds are called alveolars When we produce [f] and [v], we articulate by touching the bottom lip to the upper teeth. These speech sounds are called labiodentals
- 24. [k],[g],[],[w]are velars. When we produce these sounds we raise the back of our tongue toward the soft palate or the velum. These speech sounds are called velars.
- 25. [] and [丹] are interdentals. When we produce these sounds we insert the tip of our tongue between the upper and the lower teeth. These speech sounds are called interdentals.
- 26. [] [] [払] [覆] are palatals. When we produce these sounds we raise the front part of our tongue to a point on the hard palate just behind the alveolar ridge. These speech sounds are called palatals.