�ݺ�ߣ

Editor's Notes

• #8: The answer to the question of who an adult is can be answered by a particular society and culture at a particular time. For example, in Colonial America the notion of adulthood was based on English common law wherin males readched "the age of discretion" at fourteen and females at twelve (Jordan, 1978). If biologically defined, many cultures consider puberty to to be the entry into adulthood. Legal definitions of adulthood generally are anchored in chronological age, which varies within the same culture. Can you think of some examples of this? For ex. in the U.S. men and women can vote at age eighteen, drink at twenty-one, leave compulsory schooling at sixteen, and in some states be tried in court as an adult at age fourteen. Other definitions of adulthood hinge upon psychological maturity or social roles. Ex. Individuals should be treated as adults educationally if they behave as adults by performing adult roles and if their self-concept is that of an adult (Knowles, 1980). Can you think of some problems with this view of an adult? Ex. What about the teenage parent living on welfare? The married, full-time college student? The adults in prison or in a mental hospital? Paterson (1979) offers a way to define adults which may be a way out of this quagmire. At the heart of the concept is the notion that adults are older than children and as a result there is a set of expectation about their behavior. Although those people in most societies whom we consider as adults may and do have the widest possible variety of intellectual gifts, physical powers, character traits, beliefs, tastes, and habits. But we correctly deem them as adults by virtue of their age which requires them to evince the basic qualities of maturity.
• #10: Father of andragogy. Popularized the study – giant in field. (Term was coined in 1830’s, but he elevated it.) Studied adult learning –from both informal (YMCA, unions, forums, clubs) and formal continuing education (e.g., cc’s).
• #11: Assumptions – can argue with them. Certainly not always true; idealized people. But irrelevant to us. Self-concept:��As a person matures his self concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed human being Experience:��As a person matures he accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning. Readiness to learn.��As a person matures his readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his social roles. Orientation to learning.��As a person matures his time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and accordingly his orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject-centeredness to one of problem centredness.) Motivation to learn:��As a person matures the motivation to learn is internal��(Knowles 1984:12). Principles of Andragogy: Self-direction is important; adults are less likely to learn under direction without understanding why. Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.�� Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning activities.�� Adults need to fit learning into their prior experiences, and add new ones. Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or personal life. Adults need to know why they need to learn something, and they learn best when the topic is of immediate value Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented. (Kearsley, 2010). Adults approach learning as problem-solving. Learning by solving problems.
• #15: Different ways of engaging Ground topic: Describe a time when you… A situation you have seen… To define intelligence: Who is the smartest person you know? The least smart? Why, what makes them smart? - Consider different experiences; mine is not the sum and substance. What does it all mean, together? Instructors adopt a role of facilitator or resource rather than lecturer or grader.
• #16: Example of teaching computers: You need to explain the reasons specific things are being taught (e.g., certain commands, functions, operations, etc.) Instruction should be task-oriented instead of promoting memorization -- learning activities should be in the context of common tasks to be performed Instruction should take into account the wide range of different backgrounds of learners; learning materials and activities should allow for different levels/types of previous experience with computers. instruction should allow learners to discover things and knowledge for themselves without depending on people. However, learners should be offered guidance and help when mistakes are made.
• #17: NOTE: Need trusting environment. Need to be able to fail, and analyze failure, and learn from it.
• #18: I wanted to share with you David Kolb’s cycle of experiential learning. This is a useful paradigm to be familiar with, especially as you consider teaching procedural knowledge. While most of us are neither intensivists nor surgeons, it may seem that we have very few procedures that fall into our practice. But I am talking about procedures like bone marrow biopsies, lumbar punctures, and in the setting of 2nd year medical students, this is applicable for analysis of a bone marrow or peripheral blood smear or for interpretation of lab results. So according to Kolb, the first step is concrete experience, when the learner, after hearing your instruction on this procedure, such as analysis of a peripheral blood smear, gets directly involved with the activity through concrete experience. After completing the activity, the learner delves into reflection, during which he thinks critically about the experience…what went well? At what point did I run into difficulty? If I misinterpreted the smear, what happened? The learner will then engage in abstract conceptualization, during which he tries to link your message from your teaching with what was just experienced. The learner may say “I remember my teacher telling me that it is important to discern what the dominant, or most common morphology is on a peripheral blood smear in order to interpret it correctly. I bet I should have remembered that when I saw just one target cell and wrongly diagnosed this patient as having Hb SC disease.” With these realizations in mind, the learner engages in experimentation where he tried to improve his performance now that he has better understood your lessons. Experiential learning is a process – Experience - This may be a new experience or situation, or a reinterpretation of existing experience in the light of new concepts. Requires reflection and observation to learn most deeply- Particularly important are any inconsistencies between experience and understanding. Mistakes generate learning. Conceptualize what you learned - reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a modification of an existing abstract concept (the person has learned from their experience). Involves analysis and generalization. Plan or actually carry out next step. The learner applies their idea(s) to the worl around them to see what happens. (Even in terms of final exam. Write it down. What will you do…?) JUST DOING THE EXPERIENCE ISN’T ENOUGH (vs. Knowles – adults are self driven, need to pick their own experience, little guidance.) Different ways of learning, too.
• #19: Experiential learning is a process – Experience - This may be a new experience or situation, or a reinterpretation of existing experience in the light of new concepts. Requires reflection and observation to learn most deeply- Particularly important are any inconsistencies between experience and understanding. Mistakes generate learning. Conceptualize what you learned - reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a modification of an existing abstract concept (the person has learned from their experience). Involves analysis and generalization. Plan or actually carry out next step. The learner applies their idea(s) to the worl around them to see what happens. (Even in terms of final exam. Write it down. What will you do…?) JUST DOING THE EXPERIENCE ISN’T ENOUGH (vs. Knowles – adults are self driven, need to pick their own experience, little guidance.) Different ways of learning, too.
• #20: People have different ways of learning. Diverging – feeling and watching Assimilating – thinking and watching Converging – thinking and doing Accommodating – feeling and doing I personally think this particular model is a not valid, but there are many other models of “learners have different ways of learning/knowing” (Gardner). Let students approach the learning in different ways. Take them through different steps; they may not learn through abstraction (assimilation) the way most academics do.
• #21: Let students approach the learning in different ways. Enter at different points – planning application, etc. Keeping and transferring knowledge is hard. Kolb’s model will help them do that. Reflecting/observing Abstracting Plan or try out learning in future.
• #22: Keeping and transferring knowledge is hard. Kolb’s model will help them do that. Reflecting/observing Abstracting Plan or try out learning in future.
• #23: Zone of Proximal Development – ZPD. Definition: the distance between the actual development level as determined through independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers Get students to where they can learn the topic, skill, process with guidance.
• #24: If they can do it independently, why are you assigning it?
• #25: Scaffolding – Essentially, it’s moving people along from beginners to advanced, step by step. Break complex topics or skills down into constituent pieces, and practice/learn in stages. The metaphor is fabulous, but has taken over the original meaning (Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976 ), … Originally, it meant 1-on-1 tutoring or work with more advanced peer. Bridging the learner’s current abilities and the target task. As the paper unfolds further, it provides us with the analysis of gradual transfer of initiative, decrease of the provided help and encouragement of responsibility during the scaffolding process (cf. with transfer of responsibility and fading of scaffolding A functional system that emerges between a child and an adult, as they both iteratively and contingently adapt to each other while solving a particular learning task. A temporary adaptive support that forms a functional system with the learner, where teacher and learner adapt to one another. Key elements: Recruit of the learner to focus on the topic, Reduce the degrees of freedom: simplifying the task by reducing the number of constituent acts required to reach solution. Maintain focus and actions until the entire process is learned Mark or ID critical features (feedback for improvement.) Help control frustration, and�� when it does happen, help guide them through it. Demonstration or modeling Now, meaning has broadened – - Help learner or provide those elements of the task that are beyond the learner’s capacity, thus permitting him to concentrate upon and complete only those elements that are within his range of competence”, - Break the learning into manageable steps or tasks. Move the supports as needed.
• #26: If they can do it independently, why are you assigning it?
• #27: �� Data analysis: Start with MC assessment of facts Go to simple applications, SA answers, small group applications of mini-cases Go to failure analysis Go to complex analysis Go to unstructured complex analysis, where they make many choices (e.g., data set, type of analysis to use, question to answer.)
• #28: Cognitive Apprenticeship – comes from social constructivism… Ideas from Vygotsky, Theory of modeling (Bandura). Model from Collins,��Brown, and Newman (1989( Teach cognitive skills by modeling – but because they are cognitive, the teacher has to break down the skills and describe them as they do them. Carry out a cognitive task, describing what they are doing and why. Think teaching statistics, math. Makes tacit knowledge explicit. Start with simpler, go to more complex. Then direct students to do the same. Observe, give feedback, guide. Give reminders, hints. “Scaffolding” here = help them, do pieces for them, support them. Then meta-analysis. Make them conscious and aware, to develop mastery Have students describe what they are doing Reflection – have students assess how they are doing. (Compare to expert) Develop internal model of expertise. Then student explores, tries skills in another context. This supports transfer. Ideally, approach or describe the problem in a realistic situation like where they will use it. (“Situated learning.” Context of cognitive skills is important. Some sort of problem solving – big problem broken up into smaller ones. Make it cooperative – a social experience, where feasible. Art is taught this way. Also statistics, math, economics. Other skills, like reading/writing! Can be used to teach the following types of Content, which includes concrete facts and ideas as well as problem-solving skills: Dimension knowledge: Specific concepts, facts, and procedures Heuristic strategies: Generally applicable techniques to accomplish tasks (“rules of thumb”) Control strategies: General approaches for directing one’s solution process Learning strategies: Knowledge about how to learn new concepts, facts, and procedures
• #35: Effective Training Techniques, Jeff Chrétien, OH&S Canada; May/June 1995; p. 29-33