TCA CYCLE

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The document discusses the citric acid cycle (TCA cycle), including its key reactions catalyzed by enzymes like aconitase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, and succinyl-CoA synthetase. It also covers the significance of the TCA cycle in generating energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The cycle is described as being a crucial metabolic pathway that unifies various biochemical pathways.

REFERENCE
 https:// g.co/kgs/ncBThk.
 https://w.w.w./YESANNA/42953338.
 https://w.w.w/mhnsathish/72882839.
 https://w.w.w.1664610.

The document discusses fed batch culture techniques in microbiology. It begins with an overview of batch culture where nutrients are added only once at the start of cell culture. Fed batch culture involves adding nutrients before and during cell culture to overcome issues like catabolic repression and substrate inhibition seen in batch culture. Catabolic repression occurs when catabolites prevent the formation of enzymes needed to break down alternative nutrients. The document uses E.coli grown on glucose and lactose to illustrate this phenomenon. Substrate inhibition happens when the substrate concentration exceeds the optimal level, inhibiting the reaction. Fed batch culture allows controlling nutrient levels to maximize cell growth and product yields. Its advantages over batch culture are highlighted.

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Immunity is the body's defense mechanism against foreign bodies like bacteria, viruses, and toxins. Innate immunity provides immediate protection through physical and chemical barriers like the skin and mucous membranes, as well as white blood cells that phagocytose pathogens. The complement system and interferons are also part of innate immunity. When barriers are breached, inflammation occurs, attracting more immune cells to the site of infection to destroy pathogens and repair tissue damage.

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Immunofluorescence is a technique that uses fluorescent antibodies to visualize specific antigens in a sample. It works by binding antibodies that have been chemically conjugated with a fluorescent dye like FITC. When observed under ultraviolet light, the antibodies glow green, allowing the visualization of target molecules. There are two types: direct immunofluorescence uses antibodies directly labeled with fluorescent dye, while indirect uses a secondary antibody labeled with a fluorescent marker to recognize the primary antibody. Immunofluorescence is commonly used clinically to diagnose skin diseases by detecting antigen-antibody complexes.

COMPLEMENT FIXATION.pptxakshyhari

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This document provides information about complement fixation, a classical technique for detecting antigen-antibody complexes. It describes the principle that when an antigen and antibody interact, they form a complex that fixes with complement proteins. A positive test results in no hemolysis as the complement is fixed, while a negative test shows hemolysis as the complement remains unfixed. Requirements, procedures, applications and advantages/limitations of the complement fixation test are summarized.

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The document summarizes key points about cytokines from their definition and properties to classification and functions. Cytokines are cell signaling proteins that mediate cell-cell communication during immune responses. They are classified based on structure and receptors. Cytokines play important roles in health by regulating immunity and inflammation but can also contribute to diseases if dysregulated. Some cytokines like interferons and lymphokines are important immune signaling molecules.

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This document summarizes the history and key developments in immunology. It discusses early practices like variolation and vaccination pioneered by Jenner. Pasteur developed the first vaccines for rabies and anthrax. Ehrlich proposed the side-chain theory of antibodies. Landsteiner discovered blood groups. The first Nobel Prize in medicine was awarded to von Behring for his work on antibodies against toxins, establishing immunology as a field.

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NUTRIENT TRANSPORT MECHANISM.pdfakshyhari

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The document discusses various mechanisms of nutrient transport in cells, including simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport, and group translocation. It provides details on the concentration gradients, carrier proteins, and energy requirements that facilitate the different transport methods. Specific examples covered include sodium-hydrogen antiport, sodium-glucose symport, the phosphotransferase system for sugar phosphorylation during transport, and microbial iron uptake via siderophore secretion and receptor-mediated transport.

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The document summarizes several metabolic pathways: 1. Glycolysis (EMP pathway) breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing 2 ATP and 2 NADH. It occurs in 10 steps and has two phases. 2. The Entner-Doudoroff pathway is an alternative to glycolysis that produces pyruvate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate from glucose. It yields 1 ATP, 1 NADH, and 1 NADPH per glucose. 3. The glyoxylate cycle is a variation of the TCA cycle that converts acetyl-CoA into succinate for carbohydrate synthesis. It bypasses steps of the TCA cycle using isocitrate ly

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PASTEUR EFFECT.pptxakshyhari

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This document discusses the Pasteur effect, which is the inhibiting effect of oxygen on the fermentation process. It was discovered by Louis Pasteur in 1857 through his studies of yeast and butyric acid fermentation. Pasteur found that aerating fermenting fluids arrested the fermentation process, due to the presence of oxygen which yeast could only function without. The key difference between fermentation and respiration is that fermentation produces much less ATP than respiration, which fully oxidizes molecules through the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain. The Pasteur effect occurs because yeast switches from the low-energy fermentation pathway to the high-energy aerobic respiration pathway in the presence of oxygen.

PATHOGENESISakshyhari

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The document provides information about pathogenesis presented in a student assignment. It defines pathogenesis and lists some general terms used. It discusses virulence factors and provides examples. It describes the stages of pathogenesis as exposure, adhesion, invasion, and infection. It explains how pathogens penetrate host defenses and produce toxins. It covers transmission of disease and lists references. The skill achieved from the seminar is described as communication skills, confidence, better subject knowledge, presentation skills, and motivation.

RADIOIMMUNOASSAY.pptxakshyhari

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HETEROCYST.pdfakshyhari

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Heterocysts are specialized nitrogen-fixing cells that form in filamentous cyanobacteria during periods of nitrogen starvation. They have a thicker envelope and cell wall than vegetative cells and lack photosystem II to protect the nitrogenase enzyme from oxygen. Heterocysts occur singly, in pairs, or rarely in chains along the filament. They have a barrel shape and thickened poles, lacking phycobilins but containing carotenoids and DNA. Heterocysts develop from vegetative cells, enlarging and secreting multiple envelope layers with pores. Their functions include nitrogen fixation, storing reserves, breaking filaments, roles in sporulation, and stimulating growth.

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Immunosuppression is a reduction of the activation or efficiency of the immune system. There are different types of immunosuppression, including induced immunosuppression which can occur during transplantation procedures due to genetic differences between donor and recipient tissues. Autoimmunosuppression or immunodeficiency is when the immune system does not respond properly to antigens, allowing pathogens to affect the body. Immunosuppressive drugs are a class of drugs that suppress the strength of the immune system and are used to treat autoimmune diseases and prevent rejection after organ transplantation, but can have adverse effects such as increased risk of infection, diabetes, and high blood pressure.

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Bacterial spores are highly resistant structures that form during unfavorable conditions as part of the lifecycle of certain bacteria. They can survive without nutrients. Spores are formed intracellularly and are called endospores. Key spore-forming bacteria include Bacillus and Clostridium species. The spore structure includes a core, cortex layer, and inner and outer coatings that provide chemical and heat resistance. Sporulation is a multi-stage process where a forespore is formed and engulfed, developing protective layers before maturing into a dormant endospore. Endospores can remain dormant for long periods before germinating under favorable conditions.

clonal selection theory.PPTXakshyhari

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MICROBIAL GROWTH ( BATCH CULTURE).pptxakshyhari

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I. Batch culture is a technique used to grow microorganisms in a closed system containing a limited supply of nutrients. No nutrients or waste products are added or removed during growth. II. Microbial growth occurs in distinct phases - lag phase, exponential phase, stationary phase, and death phase. Population increases exponentially until nutrients are depleted, at which point the stationary phase begins. III. Batch cultures are used industrially for the production of antibiotics, organic acids, and other metabolites through large-scale fermentation processes.

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