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Theories of learning
Unit 4
Applied Linguistics
Fernando Rubio
University of Huelva, Spain
(Sources are in slide 40)

Broad Goals
1. Operationally define terms relevant to
theories of learning.
2. Examine learning theories that are
currently important.

Definitions: Learning is:
1. “a persisting change in human performance
or performance potential . . . (brought) about as a
result of the learner’s interaction with the
environment” (Driscoll, 1994, pp. 8-9).
2. “the relatively permanent change in a
person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience”
(Mayer, 1982, p. 1040).
3. “an enduring change in behavior, or in the
capacity to behave in a given fashion, which
results from practice or other forms of experience”
(Shuell, 1986, p. 412).

Learning Theory
Q: How do people learn?
A: Nobody really knows.
But there are 6 main theories:
Behaviorism
Cognitivism
Social Learning Theory
Social Constructivism
Multiple Intelligences
Brain-Based Learning

Behaviorism
Confined to observable and measurable
behavior
 Classical Conditioning - Pavlov
 Operant Conditioning - Skinner

Behaviorism
S R
A stimulus is presented
in order to get a response:

Behaviorism
S US
UR
CS US
CR

Behaviorism
 Operant Conditioning - Skinner
The response is made first,
then reinforcement follows.

Behaviorism
 Learning is defined by the outward
expression of new behaviors
 Focuses solely on observable behaviors
 A biological basis for learning
 Learning is context-independent
 Classical & Operant Conditioning
 Reflexes (Pavlov’s Dogs)
 Feedback/Reinforcement (Skinner’s Pigeon Box)

Behaviorism in the Classroom
 Rewards and
punishments
 Responsibility for
student learning
rests squarely
with the teacher
 Lecture-based,
highly structured

Critiques of Behaviorism
 Does not account for processes taking place
in the mind that cannot be observed
 Advocates for passive student learning in a
teacher-centric environment
 One size fits all
 Knowledge itself is given and absolute
 Programmed instruction & teacher-proofing

Learning Theory
 Behaviorism
 Cognitive Learning Theory
 Social Learning Theory

Cognitivism
 Grew in response to Behaviorism
 Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols
 Learning is the process of connecting
symbols in a meaningful & memorable way
 Studies focused on the mental processes
that facilitate symbol connection

Cognitive Learning Theory
 Discovery Learning -
Jerome Bruner
 Meaningful Verbal
Learning -
David Ausubel

 Discovery Learning
1. Bruner said anybody can learn anything at
any age, provided it is stated in terms
they can understand.

 Discovery Learning
2. Powerful Concepts (not isolated facts)
a. Transfer to many different situations
b. Only possible through Discovery Learning
c. Confront the learner with problems and help
them find solutions. Do not present
sequenced materials.

 Meaningful Verbal Learning
Advance Organizers:
New material is
presented in a
systematic way, and
is connected to
existing cognitive
structures in a
meaningful way.

 Meaningful Verbal Learning
When learners have
difficulty with new
material, go back to
the concrete anchors
(Advance Organizers).
Provide a Discovery
approach, and they’ll
learn.

Cognitivism in the Classroom
 Inquiry-oriented
projects
 Opportunities for the
testing of hypotheses
 Curiosity encouraged
 Staged scaffolding

Critiques of Cognitivism
 Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is given
and absolute
 Input – Process – Output model is
mechanistic and deterministic
 Does not account enough for individuality
 Little emphasis on affective characteristics

Learning Theory
 Behaviorism
 Social Learning Theory
 Cognitive Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory (SLT)
 Grew out of Cognitivism
 A. Bandura (1973)
 Learning takes place through observation
and sensorial experiences
 Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery
 SLT is the basis of the movement against
violence in media & video games

Learning From Models -
Albert Bandura
1. Attend to pertinent clues
2. Code for memory (store a visual
image)
3. Retain in memory
4. Accurately reproduce the observed
activity
5. Possess sufficient motivation to apply
new learning

Research indicates that the following factors
influence the strength of learning from models:
1. How much power the model seems to have
2. How capable the model seems to be
3. How nurturing (caring) the model seems to be
4. How similar the learner perceives self and
model
5. How many models the learner observes

Four interrelated processes establish and
strengthen identification with the model:
1. Children want to be like the model
2. Children believe they are like the
model
3. Children experience emotions like
those the model is feeling.
4. Children act like the model.

Through identification, children come to
believe they have the same
characteristics as the model.
When they identify with a nurturant and
competent model, children feel pleased and
proud.
When they identify with an inadequate model,
children feel unhappy and insecure.

SLT in the Classroom
 Collaborative
learning and group
work
 Modeling responses
and expectations
 Opportunities to
observe experts in
action

Critiques of Social Learning
Theory
 Does not take into account individuality,
context, and experience as mediating
factors
 Suggests students learn best as passive
receivers of sensory stimuli, as opposed to
being active learners
 Emotions and motivation not considered
important or connected to learning

Social Constructivism
 Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism, framed
around metacognition
 Knowledge is actively constructed
 Learning is…
 A search for meaning by the learner
 Contextualized
 An inherently social activity
 Dialogic and recursive
 The responsibility of the learner
 Lev Vygotsky
 Social Learning
 Zone of Proximal Development

Social Constructivism in the
Classroom
 Journaling
 Experiential activities
 Personal focus
 Collaborative &
cooperative learning

Critiques of Social Constructivism
 Suggests that knowledge is neither given
nor absolute
 Often seen as less rigorous than traditional
approaches to instruction
 Does not fit well with traditional age
grouping and rigid terms/semesters

Multiple Intelligences (MI)
 Grew out of Constructivism, framed around
metacognition
 H. Gardner (1983 to present)
 All people are born with eight intelligences:
 Enables students to leverage their strengths and
purposefully target and develop their weaknesses
1. Verbal-Linguistic 5. Musical
2. Visual-Spatial 6. Naturalist
3. Logical-Mathematical 7. Interpersonal
4. Kinesthetic 8. Intrapersonal

MI in the Classroom
 Delivery of
instruction via
multiple mediums
 Student-centered
classroom
 Authentic
Assessment
 Self-directed
learning

Critiques of MI
 Lack of quantifiable evidence that MI exist
 Lack of evidence that use of MI as a
curricular and methodological approach has
any discernable impact on learning
 Suggestive of a departure from core
curricula and standards

Brain-Based Learning (BBL)
 Grew out of Neuroscience & Constructivism
 D. Souza, N. Caine & G. Caine, E. Jensen
(1980’s to present)
 12 governing principles
1. Brain is a parallel processor 7. Focused attention & peripheral perception
2. Whole body learning 8. Conscious & unconscious processes
3. A search for meaning 9. Several types of memory
4. Patterning 10. Embedded learning sticks
5. Emotions are critical 11. Challenge & threat
6. Processing of parts and wholes 12. Every brain is unique

BBL in the Classroom
 Opportunities for group
learning
 Regular environmental
changes
 A multi-sensory
environment
 Opportunities for self-
expression and making
personal connections to
content
 Community-based
learning

Critiques of BBL
 Research conducted by neuroscientists, not
teachers & educational researchers
 Lack of understanding of the brain itself
makes “brain-based” learning questionable
 Individual principles have been scientifically
questioned

Other Learning Theories of Note
 Andragogy (M. Knowles)
 Flow (M. Czikszentmihalyi)
 Situated Learning (J. Lave)
 Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel)
 Conditions of Learning (R. Gagne)

Humanist
 All students are intrinsically motivated to
self actualize or learn
 Learning is dependent upon meeting a
hierarchy of needs (physiological,
psychological and intellectual)
 Learning should be reinforced.

 facultyweb.anderson.edu/~jhaukerman/Learning
%20Theory.ppt
 Matthew D. Laliberte www.nercomp.org/data/media/A%20Brief
%20History%20of%20Learning%20Theory.ppt
 Michael A. Lorber, Ph.D.
www.learningtechnologies.ac.uk/.../PROJECT/resources/Learn
ing%20Theory/Resources/learning%20theories.ppt
 www.dcs.bbk.ac.uk/selene/reports/SeLeNe1.2.pp
t
Sources:

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