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The Art and Science of
Java
An Introduction
to Computer Science
ERIC S. ROBERTS
CHAPTER 3

Expressions
“What’s twice eleven?” I said to Pooh.
(“Twice what?” said Pooh to Me.)
“I think that it ought to be twenty-two.”
“Just what I think myself,” said Pooh.
—A. A. Milne, Now We Are Six, 1927

3.1 Primitive data types
3.2 Constants and variables
3.3 Operators and operands
3.4 Assignment statements
3.5 Boolean expressions
3.6 Designing for change

Expressions in Java
• The heart of the Add2Integers program from Chapter 2 is
the line
int total = n1 + n2;
that performs the actual addition.
• The n1 + n2 that appears to the right of the equal sign is an
example of an expression, which specifies the operations
involved in the computation.
• An expression in Java consists of terms joined together by
operators.
• Each term must be one of the following:
– A constant (such as 3.14159265 or "hello, world")
– A variable name (such as n1, n2, or total)
– A method calls that returns a values (such as readInt)
– An expression enclosed in parentheses

Primitive Data Types
• Although complex data values are represented using objects,
Java defines a set of primitive types to represent simple data.
• Of the eight primitive types available in Java, the programs in
this text use only the following four:
int This type is used to represent integers, which are whole
numbers such as 17 or –53.
double This type is used to represent numbers that include a decimal
fraction, such as 3.14159265. In Java, such values are called
floating-point numbers ; the name double comes from the
fact that the representation uses twice the minimum precision.
boolean This type represents a logical value (true or false).
char This type represents a single character and is described in
Chapter 8.

Summary of the Primitive Types
A data type is defined by a set of values called the domain and a
set of operations . The following table shows the data domains
and common operations for all eight of Java’s primitive types:
Type Domain Common operations

byte 8-bit integers in the range –128 to 127 The arithmetic operators:
+ add * multiply
- subtract / divide
short 16-bit integers in the range –32768 to 32767
% remainder
32-bit integers in the range The relational operators:
int –2146483648 to 2146483647 != not equal
= = equal to
64-bit integers in the range < less than <= less or equal
long –9223372036754775808 to 9223372036754775807 > greater than >= greater or equal
32-bit floating-point numbers in the range
float
± 1.4 x 10-45 to ± 3.4028235 x 10-38 The arithmetic operators except %
64-bit floating-point numbers in the range The relational operators
double
± 4.39 x 10-322 to ± 1.7976931348623157 x 10308
char 16-bit characters encoded using Unicode The relational operators
The logical operators:
boolean the values true and false && add || or ! not

Constants and Variables
• The simplest terms that appear in expressions are constants
and variables. The value of a constant does not change
during the course of a program. A variable is a placeholder
for a value that can be updated as the program runs.
• A variable in Java is most easily envisioned as a box capable
The format of a constant depends on its type:
of storing a value. consist of a string of digits, optionally preceded by a
– Integral constants
total
minus sign, as in 0, 42, -1, or 1000000.
– Floating-point constants include a decimal point, as in 3.14159265 or
42 (contains an int)
10.0. Floating-point constants can also be expressed in scientific
• Each variableadding thefollowing attributes: after the digits of the
notation by has the letter E and an exponent
10-8
number, so that 5.646E-8 represents the number 5.646 from .another.
– A name, which enables you to differentiate one variable
– A type, which specifies what type ofare true and false. contain.
– The two constants of type boolean value the variable can
– A value, which represents the current contents of the in Chapter 8.
– Character and string constants are discussed in detail variable.
For the moment, all you need to know is that a string constant consists
• The name and type of a variable are double quotation marks, such
of a sequence of characters enclosed in fixed. The value changes
whenever youworld". a new value to the variable.
as "hello, assign

Java Identifiers
• Names for variables (and other things) are called identifiers.
• Identifiers in Java conform to the following rules:
– A variable name must begin with a letter or the underscore character.
– The remaining characters must be letters, digits, or underscores.
– The name must not be one of Java’s reserved words:
abstract else interface super
boolean extends long switch
break false native synchronized
byte final new this
case finally null throw
catch float package throws
char for private transient
class goto protected true
const if public try
continue implements return void
default import short volatile
do instanceof static while
double int strictfp

– Identifiers should make their purpose obvious to the reader.
– Identifiers should adhere to standard conventions. Variable names, for
example, should begin with a lowercase letter.

Variable Declarations
• In Java, you must declare a variable before you can use it.
The declaration establishes the name and type of the variable
and, in most cases, specifies the initial value as well.
• The most common form of a variable declaration is

type name = value;

where type is the name of a Java primitive type or class, name
is an identifier that indicates the name of the variable, and
value is an expression specifying the initial value.
• Most declarations appear as statements in the body of a
method definition. Variables declared in this way are called
local variables and are accessible only inside that method.
• Variables may also be declared as part of a class. These are
called instance variables and are covered in Chapter 6.

Operators and Operands
• As in most languages, Java programs specify computation in
the form of arithmetic expressions that closely resemble
expressions in mathematics.
• The most common operators in Java are the ones that specify
arithmetic computation:
+ Addition * Multiplication
– Subtraction / Division
% Remainder
• Operators in Java usually appear between two subexpressions,
which are called its operands. Operators that take two
operands are called binary operators.
• The - operator can also appear as a unary operator, as in the
expression -x, which denotes the negative of x.

Division and Type Casts
• Whenever you apply a binary operator to numeric values in
Java, the result will be of type int if both operands are of
type int, but will be a double if either operand is a double.
• This rule has important consequences in the case of division.
For example, the expression
14 / 5
seems as if it should have the value 2.8, but because both
operands are of type int, Java computes an integer result by
throwing away the fractional part. The result is therefore 2.
• If you want to obtain the mathematically correct result, you
need to convert at least one operand to a double, as in
(double) 14 / 5
The conversion is accomplished by means of a type cast ,
which consists of a type name in parentheses.

The Pitfalls of Integer Division
Consider the following Java statements, which are intended to
convert 100 Celsius temperature to its Fahrenheit equivalent:

double c = 100;
double f = 9 / 5 * c + 32;

The computation consists of evaluating the following expression:
The problem arises from the9 / 5 * c 132 32
+
fact that both 9 and 5 are of
type int, which means that
the result is also an int. 100

1

9 / 5 * c + 32

The Pitfalls of Integer Division
You can fix this problem by converting the fraction to a double,
either by inserting decimal points or by using a type cast:

double c = 100;
double f = (double) 9 / 5 * c + 32;

The computation now looks like this:
212.0

180.0

1.8

9.0

(double) 9 / 5 * c + 32

The Remainder Operator
• The only arithmetic operator that has no direct mathematical
counterpart is %, which applies only to integer operands and
computes the remainder when the first divided by the second:
14 % 5 returns 4
14 % 7 returns 0
7 % 14 returns 7

• The result of the % operator make intuitive sense only if both
operands are positive. The examples in this book do not
depend on knowing how % works with negative numbers.
• The remainder operator turns out to be useful in a surprising
number of programming applications and is well worth a bit
of study.

Precedence
• If an expression contains more than one operator, Java uses
precedence rules to determine the order of evaluation. The
arithmetic operators have the following relative precedence:
highest
unary - (type cast)
* / %
+ -
lowest

Thus, Java evaluates unary - operators and type casts first,
then the operators *, /, and %, and then the operators + and -.
• Precedence applies only when two operands compete for the
same operator. If the operators are independent, Java
evaluates expressions from left to right.
• Parentheses may be used to change the order of operations.

Exercise: Precedence Evaluation
What is the value of the expression at the bottom of the screen?

42

32

0 32
0 4

3 30 8

( 1 + 2 ) % 3 * 4 + 5 * 6 / 7 * ( 8 % 9 ) + 10

Assignment Statements
• You can change the value of a variable in your program by
using an assignment statement, which has the general form:

variable = expression;

• The effect of an assignment statement is to compute the value
of the expression on the right side of the equal sign and assign
that value to the variable that appears on the left. Thus, the
assignment statement
total = total + value;
adds together the current values of the variables total and
value and then stores that sum back in the variable total.
• When you assign a new value to a variable, the old value of
that variable is lost.

Shorthand Assignments
• Statements such as
total = total + value;
are so common that Java allows the following shorthand form:
total += value;
• The general form of a shorthand assignment is
variable op= expression;

where op is any of Java’s binary operators. The effect of this
statement is the same as
variable = variable op (expression);
For example, the following statement multiplies salary by 2.
salary *= 2;

Increment and Decrement Operators
• Another important shorthand form that appears frequently in
Java programs is the increment operator , which is most
commonly written immediately after a variable, like this:
x++;
The effect of this statement is to add one to the value of x,
which means that this statement is equivalent to
x += 1;
or in an even longer form
x = x + 1;
• The -- operator (which is called the decrement operator) is
similar but subtracts one instead of adding one.
• The ++ and -- operators are more complicated than shown
here, but it makes sense to defer the details until Chapter 11.

Boolean Expressions
In many ways, the most important primitive
type in Java is boolean, even though it is by
far the simplest. The only values in the
boolean domain are true and false, but
these are exactly the values you need if you
want your program to make decisions.
The name boolean comes from the English
mathematician George Boole who in 1854
wrote a book entitled An Investigation into
the Laws of Thought, on Which are Founded
the Mathematical Theories of Logic and
Probabilities. That book introduced a system
of logic that has come to be known as
Boolean algebra, which is the foundation for
the boolean data type.
George Boole (1791-1871)

Boolean Operators
• The operators used with the boolean data type fall into two
categories: relational operators and logical operators.
• There are six relational operators that compare values of other
types and produce a boolean result:
= = Equals != Not equals
< Less than <= Less than or equal to
> Greater than >= Greater than or equal to
For example, the expression n <= 10 has the value true if x
is less than or equal to 10 and the value false otherwise.
• There are also three logical operators:
&& Logical AND p && q means both p and q
|| Logical OR p || q means either p or q (or both)
! Logical NOT !p means the opposite of p

Notes on the Boolean Operators
• Remember that Java uses = to denote assignment. To test
whether two values are equal, you must use the = = operator.
• It is not legal in Java to use more than one relational operator
in a single comparison as is often done in mathematics. To
express the idea embodied in the mathematical expression
0 ≤ x ≤ 9
you need to make both comparisons explicit, as in
0 <= x && x <= 9
• The || operator means either or both, which is not always
clear in the English interpretation of or.
• Be careful when you combine the ! operator with && and ||
because the interpretation often differs from informal English.

Short-Circuit Evaluation
• Java evaluates the && and || operators using a strategy called
short-circuit mode in which it evaluates the right operand
only if it needs to do so.
• For example, if n is 0, the right hand operand of && in
n != 0 && x % n == 0
is not evaluated at all because n != 0 is false. Because the
expression
false && anything
is always false, the rest of the expression no longer matters.
• One of the advantages of short-circuit evaluation is that you
can use && and || to prevent execution errors. If n were 0 in
the earlier example, evaluating x % n would cause a “division
by zero” error.

Designing for Change
• While it is clearly necessary for you to write programs that
the compiler can understand, good programmers are equally
concerned with writing code that people can understand.
• The importance of human readability arises from the fact that
programs must be maintained over their life cycle. Typically,
as much as 90 percent of the programming effort comes after
the initial release of a system.
• There are several useful techniques that you can adopt to
increase readability:
– Use names that clearly express the purpose of variables and methods
– Use proper indentation to make the structure of your programs clear
– Use named constants to enhance both readability and maintainability

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