�ݺ�ߣ

Editor's Notes

• #2: Chapter 3: Differences in Culture
• #3: Have you ever visited another country? If you have, think for a minute about some of the differences you may have seen. Perhaps people dressed differently or ate different types of foods. How did people get around? By car, by train, by motor bike? Was there a particular religion that influenced how society worked? What language was spoken? Did you notice any forms of unspoken language? Your answers to these questions will give you some insight to the country’s culture. We’ll be exploring cultural differences and their effect on business in this chapter. Even if you haven’t traveled to a foreign country, you can still see cultural differences within the U.S. Think about the concept of time for example. How do people on the East Coast view time? You might have answered that East Coasters often see time as a valuable commodity that shouldn’t be wasted. Now, compare that perspective to how someone from the South might view time. Many Southerners still prefer a slower paced way of life. How might these differences affect the way you would do business in each region? Just like you might adapt for differences at home, when doing business in foreign countries, you’ll need to adapt as well. We say that companies must have cross-cultural literacy, or an understanding of how cultural differences across and within nations can affect the way in which business is practiced. It’s also important to consider how culture might affect the cost of doing business in a particular location. For example, some people argue that the Japanese traditions including lifetime employment and long-term decision-making lowered the costs of doing business in the country during the 1960s, 70s and 80s.
• #4: So, what is culture? The fundamental building blocks of culture are values, or abstract ideas about what a group believes is good, right, and desirable, and norms, or the social rules and guidelines that prescribe appropriate behavior in particular situations. You may not think, now that people in so many countries wear blue jeans, drink Coke and Starbucks coffee, eat Big Macs, and listen to MTV, that cultural differences are still important. But you’d be wrong! Long-standing cultural differences still influence how business is being done. Think for a moment about the opening case, and, how MacDonald’s had to adapt its traditional menu to meet the needs of India where the cow is revered. Also, keep in mind that culture is dynamic, it is always changing. Just think for a moment of how cell phones have changed our culture and those of many others as an example. We call a group of people who share a common set of values and norms a society, and though we talk about the French culture, and the Japanese culture, and so on, culture is not necessarily divided by national boundaries. Some countries like Switzerland even have multiple distinct cultures. Similarly, some cultures transcend national boundaries. For example, you might think of how the values promoted by Islam influence many countries.
• #5: Let’s look at the elements of culture a little more closely. As we said, values are a fundamental building block of culture. They provide the context within which a society’s norms are established and justified. Values can include things like a society’s attitudes toward individual freedom, loyalty, collective responsibility, marriage, and so on. Values also reflect the political and economic systems of a society. So, for example, the free market system in the U.S. shows that individual freedom is valued. The social rules that govern people’s actions toward one another are called norms. You can think of norms as being either folkways or mores. Folkways are the routine conventions of everyday life like dress codes, social manners, and neighborly behavior. Usually, violations of folkways are not a serious matter, but can have a negative effect on business. For example, earlier we mentioned the need to adapt to how people view the concept of time. If we consider time from an international perspective, we can think, in general terms, of people from countries like those in Northern Europe or the U.S., placing a value on time. People from these countries often think of it as a commodity that can be wasted or saved. In contrast, people from Arab or Latin cultures have a much looser concept of time, and don’t worry if they’re late for appointments, or things take longer than originally expected. So, imagine a meeting between a manager from Germany and a manager from Saudi Arabia. If the manager from Germany is kept waiting by the Saudi manager, the German manager might feel slighted, yet the Saudi manager would have no idea why. However, if the managers were aware of the different perspectives of time, the German manager might be more tolerant of the Saudi manager, and the Saudi manager might make a bigger effort to be on time to the meeting! Rituals are also folkways. So, take the process of exchanging business cards for example. The way a Japanese business manager presents his card will provide information on his rank. The deeper the bow when the card is presented, the greater the respect the manager is showing you. When you receive the card, you can show your respect by examining the card carefully, and bowing in return, and presenting your own card. Contrast this to how cards are exchanged in the U.S.! Mores are the norms that are central to the functioning of a society and to its social life. Mores may actually become laws. So, we have laws against theft and incest. As you’ve probably guessed, mores are much more significant than folkways, and violating them usually brings serious retribution. Keep in mind though, that what might be acceptable in one country, may be forbidden in another! So, while drinking alcohol is acceptable in Denmark, in Saudi Arabia it’s not.
• #6: Now, let’s talk about culture and its relationship with society and the nation-state. As we said earlier, a society is a group of people that share a common set of values and norms. In other words, it’s a group bound together by a common culture. Remember though, that nation-states are political creations and so they can contain more than one culture like India and Switzerland do. Keep in mind also that a country can have different societies, and that each society can have its own culture. We mentioned earlier the differences within the U.S.
• #7: You might be wondering where culture comes from. What determines culture? The answer to this question is that culture is an evolutionary product of a number of factors including the social structure of a society, religion, language, education, and the country’s political and economic philosophies.
• #8: Let’s talk about each of these factors beginning with social structure. Keep in mind that while social structure and religion influence values and norms, value and norms influence religion and social structure.
• #9: The basic social organization of a society is its social structure. There are two important elements to consider here. First, is the degree to which the basic unit of social organization is the individual rather than the group. In general terms, we think of the individual being dominant in Western societies, and the group being more important in other societies. The second element to consider is the degree to which the society is stratified into classes or castes. You already know that in the U.S. there is a relatively low degree of social stratification and that it’s fairly easy to move between strata. Compare this to the situation in India for example, where there is a high degree of social stratification and very low mobility between strata.
• #10: Let’s talk a bit more about the importance of individuals and groups to understanding culture. A group is just an association of two or more people who share a sense of identity or who interact with each other in structured ways based on a common set of expectations. So, you might think of your family as being a group, or perhaps you belong to a recreational or social group. In some societies the group is considered more important, while in others, individual achievements and attributes are more important.
• #11: Think about your favorite sports team for a minute. You probably know its record, and many of players, and you can probably tell me a lot about a few stars. What does this tell you about this particular group? In many Western societies, there is a strong focus on the individual and individual achievements. How does this affect business? Well, it can be both beneficial and harmful. On one hand, the focus on individual achievements leads to a high degree of entrepreneurship which is beneficial because it’s linked to the development of new products and processes. On the other hand, the focus on the individual also leads to a lot of managerial mobility, and so, there is a lack of loyalty and commitment to individual firms, and there is competition between individuals within a firm rather than team building for the sake of the organization. You’ve probably experienced some of these issues yourself. Think about your favorite sports team for a minute. You probably know its record, and many of players, and you can probably tell me a lot about a few stars. What does this tell you about this particular group? In many Western societies, there is a strong focus on the individual and individual achievements. How does this affect business? Well, it can be both beneficial and harmful. On one hand, the focus on individual achievements leads to a high degree of entrepreneurship which is beneficial because it’s linked to the development of new products and processes. On the other hand, the focus on the individual also leads to a lot of managerial mobility, and so, there is a lack of loyalty and commitment to individual firms, and there is competition between individuals within a firm rather than team building for the sake of the organization. You’ve probably experienced some of these issues yourself. In contrast, many Asian societies focus on the group as the primary form of social organization. So, rather than looking at the individual achievements of a Japanese manager, you might look at the standing of the group that he belongs to. In fact, rather than identifying themselves by the job they do, for example marketing manager, Japanese business men often identify themselves as belonging to a particular company, so they might say they belong to Sony or Toyota. You’ve probably heard of the lifetime employment system that is often associated with Japanese companies that reflects this commitment. From a business perspective, this means that there is a strong incentive to work together for the common good, rather than focus on individual achievements. Many experts believe that this cooperative atmosphere has been central to Japanese success. So, is the group emphasis always better? Not necessarily! Just like societies that emphasize the individual, there are drawbacks from emphasizing the group. One drawback in Japan for example, is a lack of incentive for individual creativity and initiative, and consequently entrepreneurial activity.
• #12: Now, let’s move on to the second important element of social organization, how a society is stratified. Remember, all societies are stratified into different categories. So, for example, you might say that you belong to the middle class. Because you are born into the social category that you’re parents are in, your chances for success depend on them. People born toward the top of the social hierarchy tend to have better education, heath, standards of living, and so on.
• #13: Suppose you don’t like your lot in life. Can you move? We use the term social mobility to refer to the extent to which individuals can move out of the strata into which they are born. How easy it is to move depends on the society. The most rigid type of society is the caste system where a person’s social position is determined by their family, and change is virtually impossible. So, if you’re born into a family of shoemakers, you can more or less count of being a shoemaker yourself! India is probably the best modern example of how a caste system works. There are four main castes, and even though it was officially abolished in 1949, its influence still remains today, particularly in rural areas. You can learn more about India’s caste system in the Country Focus in your text. The class system that exists in countries like the U.S. is a much less rigid system of stratification. You probably know stories of immigrants coming to the U.S. with only the clothes on their backs, and managing to work their way up to the top of the social hierarchy. In a class system, mobility is possible either through luck or personal achievements.
• #14: Why is social stratification important to companies? How people perceive themselves in terms of their class background influences their relationships with others. So, in countries with high levels of class consciousness, antagonistic relationships may exist between classes. Think of Britain for example. The country’s well defined classes have led to many disputes between labor and management over the years. While Britain today is moving toward a less class conscious society, China is moving in the opposite direction! Today, because of the sharp contrast in education, health care, and so on, between the rural population and urban dwellers that existed during the Communist regime, a new class structure is beginning to emerge. Peasants looking for jobs are moving into cities where a new set of classes is emerging based on occupation.
• #15: Religion also plays a big role in culture, especially in countries where a single religion is dominant. We define religion as the systems of shared beliefs and rituals that are concerned with the realm of the sacred. The religions with the greatest following today are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. You might also include Confucianism with these. While not strictly a religion, Confucianism influences behavior and shapes culture in many parts of Asia.
• #16: So, let’s talk about some of the key elements of each religion. You’ll notice that, as we said before, Christianity has the largest following with about 1.7 adherents, followed by Islam with about 1 million adherents, Hinduism with 750 adherents, and finally, Buddhism with about 350 million adherents.
• #17: Closely related to religion are ethical systems, or sets of moral principles or values that guide and shape behavior. So, you might think of Christian ethics or Islamic ethics.
• #18: About 20 percent of the world’s population is Christian. Most followers live in Europe, the Americas, or other countries settled by the Europeans. Christians are divided into Roman Catholics, those who belong to the Orthodox Church, and Protestants. You may have heard of the famous German sociologist Max Weber who made the connection between Protestant ethics and capitalism in 1904. Weber believed that the Protestant ethics of hard work and value creation were instrumental to the development of capitalism.
• #19: Islam, with its 1 billion followers, is the second largest religion in the world. Its adherents are called Muslims, and are found in more than 35 countries, particularly in the Middle East. Islam has its roots in Judaism and Christianity, and holds that those who forgo worldly gain and power to seek the favor of Allah will be the real winners. Islam is an all-embracing way of life—prayers take place 5 times a day, women dress in a certain manner, and pork and alcohol are forbidden. The attacks on the World Trade Center have increased public knowledge of Islamic fundamentalism. Many people believe that Islamic fundamentalists are violent terrorists. However, Islam actually teaches peace, justice, and tolerance. The violence that we often associate with Islamic fundamentalism actually involves only a small minority of all fundamentalists. Most live peacefully, and are deeply committed to their religious beliefs and principles. Many have turned to symbols to signify their commitment to their faith. So, for example, you see women covered head to toe in public.
• #20: How does Islam affect business? The Koran, which is the sacred book for Islam like the Bible is for Christianity, supports free enterprise and legitimate profits, and the right to protect private property, but advocates using profits in a righteous socially- beneficial manner. So, for example, as we pointed out before, the Country Focus in your text notes that prayer rooms are common in Turkey, and time is set aside to pray.
• #21: Spiritual growth and development are the central tenets of Hinduism which is practiced by about 750 million people who mainly live in India. Hinduism is the oldest religion in the world, and goes back about 4000 years. Many Hindus believe that the way to achieve nirvana is through material and physical self-denial. You probably already know that Hindus consider the cow to be sacred. Consequently, many Hindus avoid beef—a situation which created considerable challenges for McDonald’s when it expanded into India in the 1990s! McDonald’s had to develop some new sandwich options like its mutton burger in order to get around this issue. For other companies, Hinduism also creates interesting challenges. Because the religion emphasizes spiritual rather than individual achievement, the drive for entrepreneurial behavior that is so common among Protestants for example, is not present. So, a devout Hindu may not see promotion or additional responsibilities as being desirable.
• #22: Buddhism’s 350 million followers are located mainly in Central and Southeast Asia, China, Korea, and Japan. Buddhism stresses spiritual achievement and the afterlife over involvement in this world. So, as with Hinduism, there is a lack of emphasis on entrepreneurial behavior. However, because Buddhism doesn’t support the caste system, and mobility between classes is an option, there may be some entrepreneurial drive.
• #23: Finally, remember that Confucianism, which is practiced mainly in China, is not really a religion, but more of an influential ideology. Confucianism teaches the importance of attaining personal salvation through right action. Moral and ethical conduct is important, as is loyalty. What do the principles of Confucianism mean for business? Well, because of the key principles of the ideology—loyalty, reciprocal obligations, and honesty—the cost of doing business can be lower. You might think of the concept of guanxi that is so important to business in China. You can learn more about the importance of maintaining strong guanxi, or the relationship networks that are supported by reciprocal obligations, that are so vital to success in China in the Management Focus and the Closing Cases in your text. Similarly, if people behave in a moral, honest way, expensive contracts to protect companies are not necessary. Many people believe that Japan owes its success in the auto industry to the strong relationships that exist between the auto companies and their suppliers.
• #24: Now, let’s move on to look at how language defines culture. Language of course, is how we communicate with each other both in the spoken form and in the unspoken form, but it’s also how we perceive the world. Think for a minute about snow. You might say “oh, look, it’s snowing” and your friend would know exactly what you mean. But the Inuit or Eskimo people would have no idea what you meant. Why not? Because the Inuit have 24 different ways of describing what you probably think of as only snow!
• #25: We mentioned earlier that some countries have more than one distinct culture. Does this mean they have more than one language, too? Very often, the answer is yes! You probably already know that Canada has both an English speaking and a French speaking area—both with their own cultures. Belgium is divided into Flemish and French speakers, and four different languages are spoken in Switzerland! Do you know which language is the most widely spoken language in the world? If you answered English, you’re right! But keep in mind that Chinese is the mother tongue of the largest number of people! Now you may be wondering if it’s important, given that English is so widely spoken in the business world, to learn a foreign language. The answer is yes! Remember, that just because people may speak English, it may not be the English you’re familiar with. One American executive with MobiTV recently wasn’t sure whether to be concerned or happy with his British client called to say she was “chuffed to the mint balls.” A late-night translation by his British colleagues revealed that she was happy. Furthermore, learning a foreign language signals to your host that you’re making an effort to meet his needs, just as he has made an effort to meet yours. And don’t forget that failing to learn the local language can result in costly blunders. For years, China has had a reputation for making poor English translations, in fact, the translations are commonly known as Chinglish. For example, instead of finding a sign for a handicapped restroom, signs might refer to toilets for deformed persons. Stay of the grass signs on park lawns are translated into show mercy for the slender grass! In 2007, China decided that in anticipation of holding the 2008 Summer Olympics, it was time to try to correct public signage. So, the country established teams of linguistic monitors to go around Beijing and look for signs that have poor translations. Many Westerners are now lamenting what they believe is a passing of a cultural tradition!
• #26: Now, let’s talk about unspoken language. Think for a moment about how you stand when you’re talking with another person. You probably stand about an arm’s length away. But in Latin America people tend to stand much closer together. Now picture yourself at a business meeting with someone from Brazil. He might try to stand at his customary distance causing you take a step backward because he’s invaded your personal space. You may be annoyed at him for standing so close to you, and he may interpret your response as aloofness. Your meeting is already off to a bad start! It’s very important in international business to understand nonverbal cues. Think for a moment about the circle you might make with your thumb and forefinger. In the U.S., you’ve signaled a positive response, but if you make the same gesture in Greece, you’ve just insulted someone! So, because facial expressions, hand gestures, and other types of unspoken language can mean different things in different cultures, it’s important to do your homework before meeting with someone from another culture.
• #27: Another element of culture is education. You already know that formal education is important to gain the skills you need to be productive in modern society, but did you know that a country’s education system can be an important determinant of competitive advantage? Michael Porter has pointed out that Japan’s success story began with its well educated workforce. Today, India is an attractive destination for investment because of its well-educated workforce. A country’s education system can also be an indicator of what products might sell well, and what types of promotional materials should be used. So, in a country where literacy rates are low, written promotions won’t work well.
• #28: We’ve already talked a bit about how culture affects the workplace, but let’s look at this issue a little more closely. How does a society’s culture affect workplace values? One of the most extensive studies exploring this was done from 1967 to 1973 by an IBM psychologist called Geert Hofstede. Hofstede isolated four dimensions that he argued explained different cultures. Let’s talk about each dimension.
• #29: The first, power distance, focused on how a society deals with the fact that people are unequal in physical and intellectual capabilities. A culture would rank high on this dimension if it allowed these inequalities to grow over time into inequalities in wealth and power. Cultures that ranked low on power distance played down the inequalities. The second dimension, individualism versus collectivism, focused on the relationship between the individual and her fellows. You already know that in individualistic societies, individual achievement and freedom are valued, and that in collectivist societies the ties between individuals are stronger. Hofstede’s third dimension, uncertainty avoidance, measured the extent to which different cultures socialized their members into accepting ambiguous situations and tolerating uncertainty. So, in a culture that ranked high on uncertainty avoidance, people placed a premium on job security, retirement benefits, and so on, while in a low uncertainty culture, people were more willing to take risks, and were less resistant to change. Finally, the fourth dimension, masculinity versus femininity, looked at the relationship between gender and work roles. In cultures that were identified as masculine, there was a sharp distinction between sex roles, and traditional masculine values influenced cultural ideals, while in a more feminine culture, there was little differentiation between men and women in the same job.
• #30: Can you guess where your country would rank on each of these four dimensions? As you can see, Hofstede developed an index score for each of the dimensions and then ranked countries accordingly. You probably already guessed that Western nations like the U.S., Britain, and Canada all scored high on the individualism scale, and low on the power distance scale. In contrast, Japan ranked high on uncertainty avoidance, and high on masculinity. These results match the typical stereotype of Japan being a male dominated society where the tradition of lifetime security is important. Notice that both Denmark and Sweden ranked low on uncertainty avoidance and low on masculinity. Again, there results probably support what you already know about these countries. While Hofstede’s work is useful in helping us to understand different cultural dimensions, it does have some problems. The study was undertaken by Westerners and so is probably somewhat biased, it does not allow for more than one culture to exist in a country, and it was conducted by asking IBM employees in different countries various questions, and so could be biased simply by the type of people who worked at IBM. Finally, don’t forget that cultures evolve, and that what might have held 30 or 40 years ago could be very different today!
• #31: Let’s take that thought and move on to cultural change. As we said, culture is evolutionary, and change can often be slow and painful. You are probably familiar with the cultural changes that took place in the U.S. in the 1960s and 1970s when women entered the workforce and demanded to be treated the same way as men. In 2008, Sarah Palin became a candidate for Vice President of the United States. While she didn’t succeed, she did break new ground for women. The states of the former Soviet Union and its Eastern European neighbors have also been in a state of change in recent years. The fall of Communism ushered in new era of individualism and a shift away from the collectivist values that had been in place for many years. Change is also present in Japan. As we’ve already discussed, an emphasis on group achievements and loyalty has contributed to much of the country’s current success. But Japan’s younger generation is showing signs that these values may not be acceptable anymore. Instead, the younger generation is acting more like Western managers who leave companies in search of more money and rank, who avoid overtime, and who prefer to spend their free time away from the office. Why do these types of changes occur? Some studies show that economic progress is associated with a shift away from collectivism and towards individualism—this would explain what’s happening in Japan, for example. Other studies show that the effects of economic progress on factors like education and infrastructure also contribute to cultural change. So, as countries get richer, there is a shift away from traditional values. In India, a better standard of living is encouraging many younger people to embrace Western products. Yum Brands is hoping to capitalize on this cultural shift. The company opened its first Taco Bell in India in 2010. Keep in mind though, that these cultural shifts don’t occur overnight—it may take generations before they are really a part of a new culture.
• #32: So, what does all of this mean for managers? Well, as we said at the beginning, it’s vital for firms to develop cross cultural literacy. To be successful, you have to be able to conform and adapt to the value system and norms of the host country. One way you can gain knowledge of the local culture is to hire local citizens. Developing a cadre of cosmopolitan managers who have been exposed to different cultures can also be helpful.
• #33: It’s important to avoid being ethnocentric, or believe that your ethnic group or culture is superior to that of others. You’ve probably heard of the Ugly American, or the American who believes he is better than anyone else, and that his way of doing things is better than anyone else’s. French people have also been accused of sharing this trait. Needless to say, it doesn’t go down well in a business meeting! When several firms from Silicon Valley opened offices in London in 2006, both the Americans and the English had to learn to adapt to new ways of doing business. Londoners who were accustomed to eating a three course meal at a restaurant found themselves following the Californian style of grabbing a sandwich around the conference table instead! The English also discarded their suits in favor of the more causal approach to dressing that is common in Silicon Valley. One executive from Amgen commented that, unlike the British tradition of eating just at mealtimes, his American colleagues were always eating! Keep in mind that the need for cross-cultural literacy is not limited to face-to-face meetings. Boeing and Bell Helicopter found this out the hard way when promotional materials for the jointly developed Osprey plane offended many Muslims.
• #34: Another reason for companies to be aware of cultural differences is the link between culture and competitive advantage. The value systems and norms of a country influence the costs the cost of doing business, which of course then affects the competitive advantage of firms. Remember our discussion of how a society’s class structure affects the relationship between management and labor for example, or how Japan’s strong worker loyalty system, and lifetime employment guarantees affect the success of Japanese companies. Similarly, a more individualistic culture promotes entrepreneurial activities as compared to a culture that emphasizes collective behavior. These differences provide companies with insight as to which countries are most likely to produce competitors, and which countries will be the best for investing or selling. For example, if you’re comparing two countries with similar wage costs, you’ll recognize that the country with the better education system, less social stratification, and a group identification is probably the better site for production facilities. Similarly, based on cultural differences, we would expect strong competitors to emerge from Pacific Rim nations, as compared to some other parts of the world.
• #35: Now, let’s see how well you understand the material in this chapter. I’ll ask you a few questions. See if you can get them right. Ready? Question 1: Abstract ideas about what a society believes to be good, right, and desirable are called attitudes norms values mores If you picked B, you’re right!
• #36: Question 2: The extent to which an individual can move out of social strata into which they are born is called social stratification class mobility social mobility caste system If you picked C, you’re correct!
• #37: Question 3: The religion with the largest following in the world is Christianity Islam Hinduism Buddhism The correct answer is A. Did you get it right?
• #38: Question 4: Which of Hofstede’s dimensions measures the extent to which different cultures socialize their members into accepting ambiguous situations and tolerating uncertainty? Individualism versus collectivism Uncertainty avoidance Masculinity versus femininity Power distance Did you choose b?