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Final Research Essay - Columbus's Voice

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Sarah Astra

This document discusses Christopher Columbus's Nachlass, or unpublished writings left behind after his death. It focuses on analyzing Columbus's voice in the only surviving version of his journal from his first voyage, which is an abridgment by Bartolom辿 de las Casas. The document outlines problems with determining Columbus's authentic words, as the original journal and other writings are lost, and las Casas's version is removed from the original. It examines las Casas's role as an editor and how much Columbus's voice comes through despite the layers of transcription and editing over time. The goal is to understand how much of what readers see actually reflects Columbus's own words and perspective.

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Astra 1 Voices Off-Stage? Recovering the Writings of Christopher Columbus Nachlass There is a German word which is often used in the scholarly and academic world called Nachlass. It is a compound word coming from the words nach, which means after, and lassen, which means to leave. Together, this word is used to define the manuscripts, notes, letters, and other such works that are left behind when an author dies, and are normally unpublished.1 These works are especially important because they can add so much to what we know about the writer: what they valued, what they were interested in, and what kind of person they were in general. With a little imagination, this same word and concept can be applied to Christopher Columbus, the famous explorer from Genoa, commissioned by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain, who discovered from a European perspective various islands in the Indies. Of course, Columbuss written legacy is not so much found in unpublished manuscripts left behind after his death in the Journal but rather embedded in the works of others. The writings of others, most notably Bartolome de las Casas in the case of The Journal of the First Voyage, and indeed in the exchange of treaties with the Catholic Monarchs. Problems with Columbuss Nachlass As Felipe Fern叩ndez-Armesto stated in his biography of Christopher Columbus, forgeries and false documents were prevalent in Columbuss time when historians were searching for his documents. This leaves us as readers in a very difficult situation as we attempt to dissect the writing 1Nachlass. Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press, 12 February 2015. Web. 31 March 2015.
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Astra 2 and warped information from the text and try to emerge with Columbuss own voice. While I show how much of Columbuss voice comes through in Las Casass abridgment, it is imperative that I explain some limitations of this essay. One limitation is the length. Though this essay is extensive and it is meant to take an in-depth look at Columbuss voice in his Nachlass, there will always be documents that I cannot either acquire or analyze due to length and time restrictions. So for the sake of adhering to the word count of this essay, I will primarily be analyzing Christopher Columbuss log-book of 1492 (or the abridgment of it by Las Casas) and incorporate other works by him, or about him, specifically the Capitulations of Santa Fe and the Columbus Letter. There are other texts and fragments of Columbuss writings that could be analyzed in detail but these are the ones that will be focused on in this essay. A Note on the Journal of the First Voyage The only version of the Journal is in Las Casas and we have to ascertain how faithful a transcription or copy it the scholars work is. The question of Christopher Columbuss authentic voice is to be found in many works, yet it is explicitly an issue in regard to his so-called Journal of the First Voyage. Because Columbuss words are embedded are primarily embedded in the works of others, how much of them actually contain his voice and his words? Throughout this essay, I will explain that much of Columbuss voice is still preserved not only in his own writings through Las Casass quoted texted, but also through Las Casass summaries of the so-called Journal of the First Voyage and Fernando Columbuss biography. Columbus gave the Catholic Monarchs the logbook that he supposedly (as we do not know for sure whether he kept it every day because we do not have the original copy) kept day to day on his journey from the West Indies back to Spain. They did not return it but instead retained it and a copy was sent to Columbus before he set sail on his second voyage. The copy was probably kept
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Astra 3 in Columbuss family archives and was most likely the copy in which Luis Columbus, the renowns grandson, granted permission to be published. However, both the original and the copy sent to the Columbus family have disappeared in the passage of time.2 The full contents of the diaries are unknown simply because we do not know the location of them. The organizational chart, or stemmata chart, below explains the progression of Columbuss log-book and the copy that was given back to him by the Catholic Monarchs. As I will establish within this essay, both Las Casas and Fernando were most likely using the Catholic Monarch copy of Columbuss log-book when they created their abridgments. Both of these abridgments were found and published by Luis Columbus when he found them in the Columbus family library/archives. Both the original log-book that was retained by the Catholic Monarchs and they copy they sent back to Columbus have been lost to the ages, as expressed in the chart. 2 Jane, Cecil and Christopher Columbus. The Journal of Christopher Columbus. London: Anthony Blond & The Orion, 1960. Print. This background information can be found in the Foreword of the Cecil Jane translation, xv- xxiii. Christopher Columbus's Original Log-Book - Whereabouts Unknown, OriginallyRetained by CatholicMonarchs CatholicMonarch Copy - Whereabouts Unknown Las Casas Abridgment - Published byLuis Columbus Fernando Columbus Biographyand Abridgment - Published byLuis Columbus
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Astra 4 The issue at hand is whether or how far Las Casass abridgment deviates from Columbuss original words. We have the abstract text by Bartolom辿 de las Casas and we can postulate that he used either or both of the copies of the texts that existed at that time. We can tell this from certain quoted passages which supposedly are copied word-for-word from Columbuss diary. Other parts of Las Casas text are abridged from the original work. While he copied Columbuss diary of the first voyage, he also made a copy of the third voyage. This version of the Journal remained unknown for a long time but was discovered by Martin Fern叩ndez de Navarrete in the Duke del Infantados library and it was then published in 1825. Because Navarrete had been in the Spanish navy, he had corrected some of Las Casas inaccurate navigation instructions. After Columbus wrote the Journal, it had been through the scribes that the Catholic Monarchs hired to copy it, Las Casas who had copied it and created his own semi-abridged version of it, and then minor changes again were made by Navarrete.3 This shows that the original word of Columbus could have been changed drastically. Knowing this information, how much of Columbus voice actually made it through to his readers? After all of these edits done not only by other individuals like Las Casas or Navarrete, but also by Columbus himself, how much of his original voice has been retained and how much has been lost to the ages? These questions will be answered in this essay. Las Casas as Editor Las Casass contribution to the diaries has been essential specifically because if he had not intervened and created his abridgment of the Journal of the First Voyage, there would be no existing record of it. Because his father and uncle had accompanied Columbus on the second 3 Jane, London 1960, See Foreword for biographical information on pages xv-xxiii.
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Astra 5 voyage to the Indies in 1493, Bartolom辿 was the one who began collecting material about the history of the Indies almost a decade after Columbus first sailed there. Las Casas was heavily involved in the controversy surrounding the oppression of the Indians of the New World as well as questioning the legitimacy of the Spanish presence in the New World.4 Within his magnum opus, Historia de las Indias, he quotes heavily (though we do not know if it is accurately) from Columbuss Journals, normally from the Journal of the First Voyage. As previously stated in the Introduction above, the copy of the first voyage journal Las Casas used was most likely the copy that Isabella made and gave back to Columbus. Las Casas was also an accomplished historian and was given a lengthy education, something that is apparent within his writing and can be contrasted with Columbuss writings as well. With this information on Las Casas, it becomes difficult to ascertain exactly how much of the Journal the editor changed or abridged. B.W. Ife makes a valid point in his Introduction to the Journal of the First Voyage by stating that: [T]he manuscript is at two removes from the original: a digest of a copy of the original, which may itself have been a fair copy rather than the actual log-book which Columbus wrote up from day to day on board ship. We can only assume that the copy from which Las Casas worked was reasonably faithful, although he was himself aware of inaccuracies and mis- transcriptions. At times, Las Casas tries to correct or even casts doubt on Columbuss calculations or even his knowledge of certain subjects.5 This is the contribution that Las Casas has made to Columbuss 4 B.W. Ife, Christopher Columbus, and Ralph J. Penny. Journal of the First Voyage, 1492 = Diario Del Primer Viaje, 1492.Warminster, England: Aris & Phillips, 1990. Print. For biographical information on Bartolom辿 de las Casas,see B.W. Ifes Introduction, v-xxv. 5 B.W. Ife Introduction and Translation of Journal of the First Voyage, Warminster 1990, vii. See January 13th, here it seems that the Admiral knew something about astrology, although these planets do not seem to be in their
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Astra 6 Journal and to the world. Las Casas has given us his own digestion and paraphrased version of Columbuss voice, though it is apparent through much of the Journal that Columbuss voice emerges from Las Casass abridgments. Columbuss own voice, which I am arguing has been preserved throughout Las Casass abridgment, is to be defined as the Admirals own words. So how can we find Columbuss true voice in these writings of his? How can we differentiate what Columbus was attempting to say in his log-book from what Las Casas summarized it as? One way we can do so is by examining the sections where Las Casas is paraphrasing Columbus and where the editor is directly quoting (supposedly). This can be seen in the Journal, and is especially evident within the prologue of the Diary of the First Voyage.6 In Columbuss address to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, which has not been paraphrased by Las Casas and was taken directly from Columbuss diary (according to Las Casas), there are many run-on sentences that are only broken up by semi-colons or commas. In the prologue, Columbus explains the achievements of the Catholic Monarchs and their piety and only ends the thought with a period after a page and a half of semi-colons.7 B.W. Ife explains this as Columbus suffering from an over-complexity of syntax, which seems apparent within this passage. This element of Columbuss writing seems to be another form of his personal style and another part of his voice that has been preserved throughout many editions and abridgments.8 proper positions,due to bad transcription by the copyist and October 8th, He steered WSW and they made about 11 and a half or 12 leagues during the day and night and it seems that at times during the night they were making 15 miles an hour, if the text is to believed. 6Dunn, O.C., James E. Kelley, Christopher Columbus, and Bartolom辿 De Las Casas. The Diario of Christopher Columbuss First Voyage to America, 1492-1493.Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1989. Print, 17. Las Casas here states that the beginning of the Journal, This is the first voyage and the courses and way that the Admiral Don Christ坦bal Col坦n took when he discovered the Indies, summarized except for the prologue that he composed for the king and queen which is given in full and begins this way. Alludes to the fact that the rest of the Journal will be summarized, which did not happen as we can tell from the parts where the Journal slips into the first person,assuming those parts are direct quotes from Columbuss original log-book. 7 B.W. Ife, Warminster 1990, 19. 8 B.W. Ife, Warminster 1990, xi.
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Astra 7 As was previously mentioned, Columbus was a natural-born Italian speaker so he acquired Spanish as a second language. This is also especially evident within the Journal at certain parts in the original Spanish9. However, Las Casas (who was a natural-born Spanish speaker) corrected some of these phrases and grammatical issues in Columbuss Spanish Journal. In addition, we must remember that Las Casas was writing his abridgment of Columbuss Journal about 30 years after the Admiral had finished them so certain lingual changes that were developing in his time might have been different in Las Casass era.10 Columbuss Italian/Genoese heritage certainly has an effect on some of his spelling and word choice, even in the Spanish text. For instance, Ife points this out in his Introduction to the Journal of the First Voyage: The otherwise unprecedented form s鱈mplice(s) `simple', used by Columbus may owe its form to interference from a Genoese cognate of Italian s辿mplice. Likewise, the final vowel of doblo may be accounted for in similar manner (cf. Italian doppio). Doblo does not elsewhere appear in Spanish until 1640, and then only as a legal term.11 These terms are used within the Journal at different points but both, as shown by B.W. Ife, have Italian characteristics and have little to do with the Spanish language. Columbuss words reflect his background in these instances. Columbus also does something frequently which is a form of repetition which Ife calls formulaic description. This is something that Columbus did by himself and Las Casas probably would have copied from the original log-book. This technique is where the writer repeats certain 9 B.W. Ife, Warminster 1990, xxvii. Unless we are dealing with an error of transcription by Las Casas, Columbus confuses indicative and subjunctive mood in the following case: no me pare巽e que las puede aver. See November 27th, in Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 185. 10 B.W. Ife, Warminster 1990, vi. 11 B. W. Ife, Journal of the First Voyage, Warminster 1990. See October 14th for simplice (78) and on December 26th for doblo.
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Astra 8 bits of information (a canoa being a boat made from a single piece of wood12) for the sake of the audience. We know this technique is done by Columbus, and not Las Casas, because this would have been information that Las Casas would have known. He would not have needed to copy down this information multiple times if the abridgment was just for his own eyes. Las Casas uses these formulaic descriptions because they were prevalent in Columbuss copy of the Journal. In addition, there are certain descriptions that are repeated throughout the Journal, for instance the comparison of the calm sea that Columbus is sailing on to the river at Seville. Ife has several explanations for these repetitious phrases, one being that Columbus did not have many Spanish words to describe what he was seeing and had to repeat certain words. But Ifes other explanation is that Columbus understood the power of language and the effect repetition has on a reader. It makes Columbuss work more memorable and it constitutes reality.13 Assuming that Las Casas was faithful when he copied certain sections of Columbuss Journal of the first voyage, we can hopefully say that these sections are entirely Columbuss own words and his voice. These parts count for about one-fifth of the whole Journal of the First Voyage. Estelle Irizarry14 conducted a study to see the differences in both Columbuss and Las Casass writings. She finds patterns in certain sections of the Journal that are thought to be Columbuss own voice and sections that are specifically Las Casass summaries. These can show the difference between Columbuss own words and Las Casass contribution. Her results suggest that in the 12 B.W. Ife, Journal of the First Voyage, Warminster 1990, xi. This phrase is said at least ten times within the entire Journal. 13 B.W. Ife, Journal of the First Voyage, Warminster 1990, xiii. 14 Irizarry, Estelle. "The Two Authors ofColumbus' 'Diary'" Computers and Humanities 27.2 (1993): 85-92. Print, 85. Estelle Irizarry is a Professorof Spanish at Georgetown University and Editor of Hispania and Courseware Editor of CHum. She is the authorof over 20 books on Hispanic literature. This study was done in 1993 and, with the help of a computer, ProfessorIrizarry determined how much of the Journal of the First Voyage is Columbuss own writing and how much is Las Casass based on factors such as: word count per sentence,punctuation,and prevalence of religious words.
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Astra 9 specifically quoted passages in the Journal, which we must assume are in Columbuss own words due to the article I in them, are significantly longer in sentence length than Las Casass summarizations.15 However, though Irizarry utilizes a computer and gives helpful data, her results are less than conclusive when it comes to longer sentences by both Las Casas and Columbus. Both writers use long sentences more often than shorter ones, according to Irizarrys data which diminishes her initial point: that she can show the differences between Columbuss own words and Las Casass abridgments. Though Irizarry does aid this discussion and give an alternative analysis to Columbuss Journal, I think her works have been superseded by Barry Ife. I have come to this conclusion simply because Ife offers answers and an analysis whereas Irizarry only gives raw data and does not analyze her findings to the extent that she could. One might say she was right for the wrong reasons. From the amount of analysis that she did do, we can take some information away from it. Though we could take into account the different passages Irizarry was testing, it offers the conclusion that Columbus uses less short sentences than Las Casas, which seems to be accurate when one analyzes works by Columbus. This statement is also supported by the text of the Journal. As stated in the Columbus section of this essay, the Admiral was rather keen on verbose and lengthy journal entries. Las Casas was not so, as shown in certain passages of the Journal: They steered on their route west that day and night and made 20 leagues. He reported a few less. Here the men of the Ni単a said that they had seen a tern and a tropic bird, and these birds never depart from land more than 25 leagues.16 15 See Irizarry, Computers and Humanities 1993, 88. From a 5000 word chunk of Las Casass writings taken from the Journal of the First Voyage, there were about 30 sentences that were fewer than 10 words. For the same sized chunk of Columbuss writings taken from the Journal, there were only seven sentences with 10 words or less. 16 Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 31. See September 14th.
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Astra 10 These sentences, though long, are not to the extent of Columbuss sentence length. With Columbus, many of his sentences are exceedingly long with many semi-colons and commas, as shown in the Introduction. Las Casas is normally shorter and more direct, as would be expected of a summary. But even with this thought in mind, we can still see how much of Columbuss voice comes through in Las Casass abridgment of Columbuss Journal. For instance, when Las Casas summarizes the proceedings of September 6th in the Journal, he says this: And the Admiral learned from a caravel that was coming from the island of Hierro that three Portuguese caravels were sailing in the vicinity in order to capture him. It must have been from envy that the king felt because of the Admirals having gone away to Castile. And he proceeded all that day and night in very light winds and in the morning he found himself between Gomera and Tenerife.17 Though Las Casas is summarizing Columbus here, we can still hear Columbus speaking. Las Casass reasoning behind the Portuguese king sending ships after Columbus was because the king was probably jealous of Columbus for his voyage. But this seems like a statement that Columbus himself would have said. As Fern叩ndez-Armesto said: His manner and speed exuded ambition. He was pre-disposed to success, unresponsive to setbacks and blind to any obstacle, of however incontestably material a nature, that might lie in his path He had a deep conviction of self-righteousness and the unlimited capacity for self-deception that usual accompanies that quality.18 Columbus was a man of self-righteousness and was capable of self-deception and this statement supports these qualities. Though Las Casas summarized and corrected Columbus in certain areas 17 Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 27. 18 Fern叩ndez-Armesto, Felipe. Columbus and the Conquest of the Impossible. London: Phoenix, 2000. Print. 26.
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Astra 11 of this journal, Columbuss main points and his voice come across to the audience. We are still able to hear his personality and envision his actions without Columbuss original words in the Journal and even though it was edited by another person. Columbuss own voice and his words are seen in writings other than in Las Casas copy of the Journal19 in places like his letters back to Spain. Perhaps these letters reveal much about the Admirals personality and mannerisms that are supported by the Journal. For example, when he is writing back to Antonio de Torres, Columbuss correspondent back in Spain with the Catholic Monarchs: [Y]ou will tell their Highnesses, as I charged and ordered you, that I have given strict orders that the gold that you carry with you be placed in the hands of some merchant in Seville, in order that he may therefrom disburse the sums necessary for loading the two caravels with wine, corn, and other articles detailed in this memorial... With quotations like these, which can be seen throughout Columbuss letters to Antonio de Torres, it can be seen just how often Columbus ordered others and showed how prescriptive he was, even with the title of Admiral. Without consulting the Catholic Monarchs, he had already arranged for the supplies he needed to be transported to him with the gold that he was supposed to send back to the Catholic Monarchs. In addition, Columbus begins almost every letter to de Torres with the words, You will rather than requesting de Torres to do something. Columbus was a demanding individual, which is also evident within his own Journal.20 Even in the sections that Las Casas has 19 An obvious limitation of this essay is that we as a world do not have many of the original copies of the texts that I am going to be discussing.The original log-book of Columbuss has been lost to the ages and all that remains is the mainly-summarized version that Las Casas left behind.There is so much more evidence of Columbuss voice and his own words that have disappeared. 20 Many of these works are in Spanish, which was not Columbuss native tongue due to his Italian ancestry but was Las Casass native language, so I will be using translations as I do not speak either of these language. Though this
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Astra 12 abridged, Columbus is still depicted as ordering or commanding others to carry out his wishes.21 This is certainly Columbuss voice: Religious in a certain sense, educated but only to an extent, and commanding while also putting his needs before others permission (with the example of the gold given to a merchant instead of the Catholic Monarchs). Fernando Columbus Fernando Columbus (sometimes referred to as Fernando) was Christopher Columbuss second son who voyaged with him on the Fourth Voyage. Though Fernando did not play a part in translating and editing his father's journals22, he did write The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus which tells the story of the voyages, some of which Fernando played a part in, and how this son saw his father. To create this biography, Fernando would have had to have a copy of his fathers Journal, or at least Las Casass abridgment. Certain sections within the biography suggest that he was using Columbuss copy of the log-book which he received from the Catholic Monarchs. For instance, in the Authors Foreword, which is written in Fernandos own words, he says something that suggests he is not using Las Casass work: I promise to tell the story of the Admiral's life only from his own writings and letters and what I myself observed. And whoever suspects that I have added something of my own invention does detract from the accuracy of Columbuss intended words, the differences are small and should not cause many issues. 21 Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 43, 53, and 117. See September 25th, The Admiral ordered the ships to leave their course, October 7th, ... fired a Lombard as a signal that they saw land, because so had ordered the Admiral. He had also ordered that at sunrise and sunset the vessels should join him, and October 28th, He ordered not a thing of all this was to be touched, and thus is was done. 22 Columbus, Fernando.The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus By His Son Ferdinand.Trans.Benjamin Keen. London: Folio Society, 1959. Print, 77. The Historie was not actually published by Fernando himself, but by his nephew, Luis who was hard-pressed for money and had found the manuscript.
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Astra 13 may be certain that I know such a thing would profit me nothing in the next life and that none but my readers shall reap the fruits of my labour.23 Had Fernando been using Las Casass abridgment, he would have indicated that at the beginning of the biography. However, he says he is using his fathers own writings and letters. Therefore, we must assume that these works were the originals that Columbus wrote and his Journal must have been the one the Admiral received from the Catholic Monarchs. Fernando would have had access to this copy because it was stored in the Columbus familys library, as indicated in the Introduction. Though this biography of Columbus is from his son's point of view, we can also tease out the parts where Columbus's voice and his own words shine through. For example, in Fernandos biography of his father, we can see Columbuss influence on his son: That night, therefore, after they had sung the Hail Mary as seamen are accustomed to do at nightfall, he spoke to the men of the favour that Our Lord had shown them by conducting them so safely and prosperously with fair winds and a clear course, and by comforting them with signs that daily grew more abundant.24 From this passage, we can see the religious references in which Columbus was so adamant about relaying in his Journal.25 We know that this is Columbuss voice here because Fernando was using his fathers works when the son was creating the biography, and in the Journal Columbus was said to pray often and make many religious references to the Bible as shown in the footnote. Because 23 Keen, London 1959, 25. 24 Keen, London 1959. 77. 25 Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 35 & 41. See September 17th I hope in that mighty God in Whose hands are all victories that very soon He will give us land and September 23rd the high sea was very necessary forme, [a sign] which had not appeared except in the time of the Jews when they left Egypt [and complained] against Moses, who took them out of captivity.
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Astra 14 Fernando had access to the majority of his father's writings (his Nachlass) we can find Columbus's thoughts, like the ones above, on the voyages and compare them to Fernando's own voice.26 The Columbus Letter While we have biographies and abridgments of Columbuss words, we also have documents like the Columbus Letter which was written by the Admiral himself and is in his original voice. This letter was sent by Columbus to either Luis de Sant叩ngel (the financial minister of King Ferdinand) or Gabriel Sanchez and was used by the Admiral to spread the news of his homecoming around Europe.27 It was printed in Spanish originally and then in Latin for further dispersal. This letter is important in hearing Columbuss voice in other sources because the letter is in his own words. Barring complications with translators and grammatical changes throughout time, these are (supposedly) the words that Columbus wrote to excite the people of Europe about his return to Granada. It is essentially a recap of the First Voyage and a short description of the islands he discovered. This is significant in showing us Columbuss voice because passages from the letter can be compared with the sections of the Journal Las Casas allegedly copied from Columbuss log- book to determine the accuracy of said passages. For instance, even at the very beginning of the 26 Keen, London 1959, 179. At Medina del Campo, in 1498, the Catholic Sovereigns granted him many favours and privileges in what related both to the Admirals affairs and estate and to the better government and administration of the Indies. I shall give account of these things here in order to make clear the good will of the Sovereigns toward him and their desire to reward him for his merits and services. Later, because of the lying reports of spiteful and envious men, they changed their demeanor and permitted injuries and offences to be done to him, as I shall pres ently relate. Because Fernando was an essentialpart of the litigations in favor of restoring the rights promised to Columbus in the Capitulations, he has made it known in this biography his own opinion on the matter. Though Columbus himself was indeed disappointed because the Catholic Monarchs failed to uphold their end of the bargain, it was his family who fought long and hard for their rights to the title and wealth they were promised. This is Fernandos own contribution, not Columbuss, within the biography. 27Jane, London 1960, xxi.
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Astra 15 letter28, the grammar and punctuation seems to be similar (if not identical) to the beginning of the Journal in the section where Columbus is supposedly quoted directly from the log-book (see explanation in Las Casas and Columbus section about Columbuss punctuation). Not only does the Journal show similarities in punctuation, but the descriptions of the islands and the ocean are very similar to the sections where Las Casas supposedly transcribed faithfully from Columbuss original log-book. For instance, within the Columbus Letter, the Admiral tries to explain the beauty of the islands: [M]ost lofty mountains incomparably beyond the island of Tenerife, all the most beautiful in a thousand kinds, so lofty that they seem to reach the sky. And I am assured that they never lose their foliage; as may be imagined, since I saw them as green and as beautiful as they are in Spain during May.29 Columbus, within Las Casass abridgment, writes almost the same description in the Journal on December 20th.30 In addition, Columbus constantly compares the beauty of the islands in the Indies to Spain, which is also shown in the Journal.31 Sections such as these show how similar the Las Casas abridgment and the Columbus Letter not only in punctuation but also with descriptions. If Las Casass summaries and supposed-transcriptions are so similar, it leads me to believe that Las Casas faithfully transcribed and summarized Columbuss log-book. 28 Jane, London 1960, 191. Sir: As I know that you will have pleasure from the great victory which our Lord hath given me in my voyage,I write you this,by which you shall know that in thirty-three days I passed overto the Indies with the fleet which the most illustrious King and Queen, our Lords, gave me; where I found very many islands peopled with inhabitants beyond number. 29 Jane, London 1960, 192. 30 Jane, London 1960, 108. it ran down to the harbor from the south-east and was all fenced in by very lofty mountains, which seemed to touch the sky, in which were very beautiful, full of green trees,and without a doubt there are there loftier mountains than the island of Tenerife in the Canaries, which is held to be one of the loftiest that can be found. 31 Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 251. Here and in all the island everything is green and the vegetation is like April in Andalusia.
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Astra 16 The Capitulations of Santa Fe In addition to examining those who had an effect on Columbuss voice and words, we can also see certain documents which indirectly or indeed vicariously express the Admirals words. Documents like the Capitulations of Santa Fe, the documents which stipulated what rewards Columbus would acquire should he find new land for the Catholic Monarchs, are perfect examples of Columbuss indirect voice. Though they were not written by Columbus himself, there are echoes of his voice and his influence is apparent in them. This is another instance where Columbuss voice is embedded in the writings of others rather than his own. This document was most likely drawn up by Columbus and his lawyers before he left for his First Voyage and was signed by the Catholic Monarchs without hesitation. The Capitulations generally stated these five stipulations: 1. To appoint Columbus Admiral and Don for all his life and his heirs, and those islands and main-lands which were discovered. 2. To grant the title and position of viceroy and governor of all lands discovered or won by Columbus. 3. To grant Columbus a tenth of all goods and products (gold) of any kind in which were obtained in the lands he discovered. 4. Giving Columbus the right to serve as a judge in any kind of problems related to wealth. 5. Giving Columbus the right to participate in one-eighth of the profits of the entire fleet and the grant of trade with other countries identified.32 32Nader, Helen and Christopher Columbus. The Book ofPrivileges Issued to Christopher Columbus by King Fernando and Queen Isabel, 1492-1502.Berkeley: University of California, 1996. Print. Due to certain research restrictions, a full copy of the Capitulations of Santa Fe could not be found. The Book of Privileges has a summary of the Capitulations. 17-24.
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Astra 17 However, when Columbus upheld his part of the bargain (discovering certain islands in the Indies), the Catholic Monarchs renegaded on their promises to him. These stipulations surely reflect Columbuss influences and what he desired to take away from this first voyage. For example, within the third stipulation it is apparent that Columbus will receive one-tenth of all of the gold and products that are discovered on the islands. This shows that Columbus values gold and money, considering two out of the five stipulations have to do with profits and gold. This is also confirmed by the Journal because whenever he attempts to speak with the natives he meets, he always inquires as to where he can find gold.33 It is also shown in the Columbus Letter that the Admiral is very concerned with the goods and valuables of the new islands that he discovered simply because he references it many times.34 Columbuss demanding personality also is shown throughout this document just like it is shown in the letters written to Antonio de Torres (see Las Casas and Columbus section). In can be seen specifically in the first stipulation of the Capitulations. According to Helen Nader, Columbus fought heavily for the right to an inheritable title and possessions that he would obtain from his voyage. The Catholic Monarchs were hesitant specifically because these clauses violated the very nature of their monarchy.35 But Columbus had his way in the end and the stipulation was put into the Capitulations. Just like he ordered others around when he was on his voyage, he managed to 33Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 141 & 145. See November 6th Today I pulled the ship off the beach and made ready to leave on Thursday,in the name of God, and to go to the southeast to seekgold and spices and to explore land and November 12th, Because without doubt there is in these lands a very great quantity of gold; for not without cause do these Indians that I bring with me say that there are in these islands places where they dig gold and wear it on their chests, on their ears, and on their arms, and on their legs; and they are very thick bracelets. 34Jane, London 1960, 194. In the earth there are many mines of metals the mountains and hills, and plains, and fields, and the soil, so beautiful and rich for planting and sowing, for breeding cattle of all sorts,for building of towns and villages the many and great rivers, and excellent waters, most of which contain gold There are many spiceries and great mines of gold and other metals. 35Nader, Helen. Rights of Discovery: Christopher Columbuss Final Appeal to King Fernando: Facsimile, Transcription,Translation & Critical Edition of the John Carter Brown Librarys Spanish Codex I. Cali, Colombia: Carvajal, 1992. Print. 3.
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Astra 18 order the Catholic Monarchs into letting him have this title (even though they did renegade on these stipulations after the voyage). His actions and voice are still seen in contracts and documents he did not even write. Conclusions After all of this, what are we left with? One of the most prevalent issues with Columbuss Nachlass is that it is found within the works of others so we do not know how much of it retains Columbuss original voice. From the analysis of Las Casas and Columbus, we can see that there are many grammatical, descriptive, and lingual markers that Las Casas left in his transcription of the Journal that would only have come from Columbus. When we look at the Columbus Letter, we are shown the Admirals own words and voice. This gave us a valid comparison between the Journal and the Letter. With the analysis of the Capitulations of Santa Fe, we are shown exactly what Columbus valued (which is also expressed by the Journal) and how demanding he was, even to the Catholic Monarchs. Finally, through all of these analyses, it can be said that Las Casass abridgment contains much of Columbuss voice and, especially comparing the sections where Las Casas transcribed Columbuss own words with the Columbus Letter, it is evident that Las Casas was faithful in his version of the Admirals Journal of theFirst Voyage. In light of this information and as shown with the additional documents about Columbus, if we as an audience listen carefully, we can hear the voice of the Admiral in the Journal as well.
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Astra 19 Bibliography Bartosik-Velez, Elise. The First Interpretations of the Columbian Enterprise. Revista Canadiense De Estudios Hispanicos 33.2 (2009): 317-334. Print. B.W. Ife, Christopher Columbus, and Ralph J. Penny. Journal of the First Voyage, 1492 = Diario Del Primer Viaje, 1492. Warminster, England: Aris & Phillips, 1990. Print. Cohen, J.M. The Four Voyages of Christopher Columbus; Being His Own Log-book, Letters, and Dispatches with Connecting Narrative Drawn from the Life of the Admiral by His Son Hernando Colon and Other Contemporary Historians. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969. Print. Jane, Cecil and Christopher Columbus. The Journal of Christopher Columbus. London: Anthony Blond & The Orion, 1960. Print. Columbus, Fernando. The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus By His Son Ferdinand. Trans. Benjamin Keen. London: Folio Society, 1959. Print. Dunn, O.C., James E. Kelley, Christopher Columbus, and Bartolom辿 De Las Casas. The Diario of Christopher Columbuss First Voyage to America, 1492-1493. Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1989. Print. Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe. Columbus and the Conquest of the Impossible. London: Phoenix, 2000. Print. Flint, Valerie I. J. The Imaginative Landscape of Christopher Columbus. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1992. Print. Henige, David P. In Search of Columbus: The Sources for the First Voyage. Tucson: University of Arizona, 1991. Print. Irizarry, Estelle. "The Two Authors of Columbus' 'Diary'" Computers and Humanities 27.2 (1993): 85-92. Print. Keeley, Graham. Columbus Exposed as Iron-Fisted Tyrant Who Tortured His Slaves. The Independent. Independent Digital News and Media, 21 July 2006. Web. 24 March 2015. Nachlass. Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press, 12 February 2015. Web. 31 March 2015. Nader, Helen. Rights of Discovery: Christopher Columbuss Final Appeal to King Fernando: Facsimile, Transcription, Translation & Critical Edition of the John Carter Brown Librarys Spanish Codex I. Cali, Colombia: Carvajal, 1992. Print. Nader, Helen and Christopher Columbus. The Book of Privileges Issued to Christopher Columbus by King Fernando and Queen Isabel, 1492-1502. Berkeley: University of California, 1996. Print.
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Astra 20 Williams, Jerry M., and Robert Earl Lewis. Early Images of the Americas: Transfer and Invention. Tucson: University of Arizona, 1993. Print.
Astra 1 Voices Off-Stage? Recovering the Writings of Christopher Columbus Nachlass There is a German word which is often used in the scholarly and academic world called Nachlass. It is a compound word coming from the words nach, which means after, and lassen, which means to leave. Together, this word is used to define the manuscripts, notes, letters, and other such works that are left behind when an author dies, and are normally unpublished.1 These works are especially important because they can add so much to what we know about the writer: what they valued, what they were interested in, and what kind of person they were in general. With a little imagination, this same word and concept can be applied to Christopher Columbus, the famous explorer from Genoa, commissioned by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain, who discovered from a European perspective various islands in the Indies. Of course, Columbuss written legacy is not so much found in unpublished manuscripts left behind after his death in the Journal but rather embedded in the works of others. The writings of others, most notably Bartolome de las Casas in the case of The Journal of the First Voyage, and indeed in the exchange of treaties with the Catholic Monarchs. Problems with Columbuss Nachlass As Felipe Fern叩ndez-Armesto stated in his biography of Christopher Columbus, forgeries and false documents were prevalent in Columbuss time when historians were searching for his documents. This leaves us as readers in a very difficult situation as we attempt to dissect the writing 1Nachlass. Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press, 12 February 2015. Web. 31 March 2015.
Astra 2 and warped information from the text and try to emerge with Columbuss own voice. While I show how much of Columbuss voice comes through in Las Casass abridgment, it is imperative that I explain some limitations of this essay. One limitation is the length. Though this essay is extensive and it is meant to take an in-depth look at Columbuss voice in his Nachlass, there will always be documents that I cannot either acquire or analyze due to length and time restrictions. So for the sake of adhering to the word count of this essay, I will primarily be analyzing Christopher Columbuss log-book of 1492 (or the abridgment of it by Las Casas) and incorporate other works by him, or about him, specifically the Capitulations of Santa Fe and the Columbus Letter. There are other texts and fragments of Columbuss writings that could be analyzed in detail but these are the ones that will be focused on in this essay. A Note on the Journal of the First Voyage The only version of the Journal is in Las Casas and we have to ascertain how faithful a transcription or copy it the scholars work is. The question of Christopher Columbuss authentic voice is to be found in many works, yet it is explicitly an issue in regard to his so-called Journal of the First Voyage. Because Columbuss words are embedded are primarily embedded in the works of others, how much of them actually contain his voice and his words? Throughout this essay, I will explain that much of Columbuss voice is still preserved not only in his own writings through Las Casass quoted texted, but also through Las Casass summaries of the so-called Journal of the First Voyage and Fernando Columbuss biography. Columbus gave the Catholic Monarchs the logbook that he supposedly (as we do not know for sure whether he kept it every day because we do not have the original copy) kept day to day on his journey from the West Indies back to Spain. They did not return it but instead retained it and a copy was sent to Columbus before he set sail on his second voyage. The copy was probably kept
Astra 3 in Columbuss family archives and was most likely the copy in which Luis Columbus, the renowns grandson, granted permission to be published. However, both the original and the copy sent to the Columbus family have disappeared in the passage of time.2 The full contents of the diaries are unknown simply because we do not know the location of them. The organizational chart, or stemmata chart, below explains the progression of Columbuss log-book and the copy that was given back to him by the Catholic Monarchs. As I will establish within this essay, both Las Casas and Fernando were most likely using the Catholic Monarch copy of Columbuss log-book when they created their abridgments. Both of these abridgments were found and published by Luis Columbus when he found them in the Columbus family library/archives. Both the original log-book that was retained by the Catholic Monarchs and they copy they sent back to Columbus have been lost to the ages, as expressed in the chart. 2 Jane, Cecil and Christopher Columbus. The Journal of Christopher Columbus. London: Anthony Blond & The Orion, 1960. Print. This background information can be found in the Foreword of the Cecil Jane translation, xv- xxiii. Christopher Columbus's Original Log-Book - Whereabouts Unknown, OriginallyRetained by CatholicMonarchs CatholicMonarch Copy - Whereabouts Unknown Las Casas Abridgment - Published byLuis Columbus Fernando Columbus Biographyand Abridgment - Published byLuis Columbus
Astra 4 The issue at hand is whether or how far Las Casass abridgment deviates from Columbuss original words. We have the abstract text by Bartolom辿 de las Casas and we can postulate that he used either or both of the copies of the texts that existed at that time. We can tell this from certain quoted passages which supposedly are copied word-for-word from Columbuss diary. Other parts of Las Casas text are abridged from the original work. While he copied Columbuss diary of the first voyage, he also made a copy of the third voyage. This version of the Journal remained unknown for a long time but was discovered by Martin Fern叩ndez de Navarrete in the Duke del Infantados library and it was then published in 1825. Because Navarrete had been in the Spanish navy, he had corrected some of Las Casas inaccurate navigation instructions. After Columbus wrote the Journal, it had been through the scribes that the Catholic Monarchs hired to copy it, Las Casas who had copied it and created his own semi-abridged version of it, and then minor changes again were made by Navarrete.3 This shows that the original word of Columbus could have been changed drastically. Knowing this information, how much of Columbus voice actually made it through to his readers? After all of these edits done not only by other individuals like Las Casas or Navarrete, but also by Columbus himself, how much of his original voice has been retained and how much has been lost to the ages? These questions will be answered in this essay. Las Casas as Editor Las Casass contribution to the diaries has been essential specifically because if he had not intervened and created his abridgment of the Journal of the First Voyage, there would be no existing record of it. Because his father and uncle had accompanied Columbus on the second 3 Jane, London 1960, See Foreword for biographical information on pages xv-xxiii.
Astra 5 voyage to the Indies in 1493, Bartolom辿 was the one who began collecting material about the history of the Indies almost a decade after Columbus first sailed there. Las Casas was heavily involved in the controversy surrounding the oppression of the Indians of the New World as well as questioning the legitimacy of the Spanish presence in the New World.4 Within his magnum opus, Historia de las Indias, he quotes heavily (though we do not know if it is accurately) from Columbuss Journals, normally from the Journal of the First Voyage. As previously stated in the Introduction above, the copy of the first voyage journal Las Casas used was most likely the copy that Isabella made and gave back to Columbus. Las Casas was also an accomplished historian and was given a lengthy education, something that is apparent within his writing and can be contrasted with Columbuss writings as well. With this information on Las Casas, it becomes difficult to ascertain exactly how much of the Journal the editor changed or abridged. B.W. Ife makes a valid point in his Introduction to the Journal of the First Voyage by stating that: [T]he manuscript is at two removes from the original: a digest of a copy of the original, which may itself have been a fair copy rather than the actual log-book which Columbus wrote up from day to day on board ship. We can only assume that the copy from which Las Casas worked was reasonably faithful, although he was himself aware of inaccuracies and mis- transcriptions. At times, Las Casas tries to correct or even casts doubt on Columbuss calculations or even his knowledge of certain subjects.5 This is the contribution that Las Casas has made to Columbuss 4 B.W. Ife, Christopher Columbus, and Ralph J. Penny. Journal of the First Voyage, 1492 = Diario Del Primer Viaje, 1492.Warminster, England: Aris & Phillips, 1990. Print. For biographical information on Bartolom辿 de las Casas,see B.W. Ifes Introduction, v-xxv. 5 B.W. Ife Introduction and Translation of Journal of the First Voyage, Warminster 1990, vii. See January 13th, here it seems that the Admiral knew something about astrology, although these planets do not seem to be in their
Astra 6 Journal and to the world. Las Casas has given us his own digestion and paraphrased version of Columbuss voice, though it is apparent through much of the Journal that Columbuss voice emerges from Las Casass abridgments. Columbuss own voice, which I am arguing has been preserved throughout Las Casass abridgment, is to be defined as the Admirals own words. So how can we find Columbuss true voice in these writings of his? How can we differentiate what Columbus was attempting to say in his log-book from what Las Casas summarized it as? One way we can do so is by examining the sections where Las Casas is paraphrasing Columbus and where the editor is directly quoting (supposedly). This can be seen in the Journal, and is especially evident within the prologue of the Diary of the First Voyage.6 In Columbuss address to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, which has not been paraphrased by Las Casas and was taken directly from Columbuss diary (according to Las Casas), there are many run-on sentences that are only broken up by semi-colons or commas. In the prologue, Columbus explains the achievements of the Catholic Monarchs and their piety and only ends the thought with a period after a page and a half of semi-colons.7 B.W. Ife explains this as Columbus suffering from an over-complexity of syntax, which seems apparent within this passage. This element of Columbuss writing seems to be another form of his personal style and another part of his voice that has been preserved throughout many editions and abridgments.8 proper positions,due to bad transcription by the copyist and October 8th, He steered WSW and they made about 11 and a half or 12 leagues during the day and night and it seems that at times during the night they were making 15 miles an hour, if the text is to believed. 6Dunn, O.C., James E. Kelley, Christopher Columbus, and Bartolom辿 De Las Casas. The Diario of Christopher Columbuss First Voyage to America, 1492-1493.Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1989. Print, 17. Las Casas here states that the beginning of the Journal, This is the first voyage and the courses and way that the Admiral Don Christ坦bal Col坦n took when he discovered the Indies, summarized except for the prologue that he composed for the king and queen which is given in full and begins this way. Alludes to the fact that the rest of the Journal will be summarized, which did not happen as we can tell from the parts where the Journal slips into the first person,assuming those parts are direct quotes from Columbuss original log-book. 7 B.W. Ife, Warminster 1990, 19. 8 B.W. Ife, Warminster 1990, xi.
Astra 7 As was previously mentioned, Columbus was a natural-born Italian speaker so he acquired Spanish as a second language. This is also especially evident within the Journal at certain parts in the original Spanish9. However, Las Casas (who was a natural-born Spanish speaker) corrected some of these phrases and grammatical issues in Columbuss Spanish Journal. In addition, we must remember that Las Casas was writing his abridgment of Columbuss Journal about 30 years after the Admiral had finished them so certain lingual changes that were developing in his time might have been different in Las Casass era.10 Columbuss Italian/Genoese heritage certainly has an effect on some of his spelling and word choice, even in the Spanish text. For instance, Ife points this out in his Introduction to the Journal of the First Voyage: The otherwise unprecedented form s鱈mplice(s) `simple', used by Columbus may owe its form to interference from a Genoese cognate of Italian s辿mplice. Likewise, the final vowel of doblo may be accounted for in similar manner (cf. Italian doppio). Doblo does not elsewhere appear in Spanish until 1640, and then only as a legal term.11 These terms are used within the Journal at different points but both, as shown by B.W. Ife, have Italian characteristics and have little to do with the Spanish language. Columbuss words reflect his background in these instances. Columbus also does something frequently which is a form of repetition which Ife calls formulaic description. This is something that Columbus did by himself and Las Casas probably would have copied from the original log-book. This technique is where the writer repeats certain 9 B.W. Ife, Warminster 1990, xxvii. Unless we are dealing with an error of transcription by Las Casas, Columbus confuses indicative and subjunctive mood in the following case: no me pare巽e que las puede aver. See November 27th, in Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 185. 10 B.W. Ife, Warminster 1990, vi. 11 B. W. Ife, Journal of the First Voyage, Warminster 1990. See October 14th for simplice (78) and on December 26th for doblo.
Astra 8 bits of information (a canoa being a boat made from a single piece of wood12) for the sake of the audience. We know this technique is done by Columbus, and not Las Casas, because this would have been information that Las Casas would have known. He would not have needed to copy down this information multiple times if the abridgment was just for his own eyes. Las Casas uses these formulaic descriptions because they were prevalent in Columbuss copy of the Journal. In addition, there are certain descriptions that are repeated throughout the Journal, for instance the comparison of the calm sea that Columbus is sailing on to the river at Seville. Ife has several explanations for these repetitious phrases, one being that Columbus did not have many Spanish words to describe what he was seeing and had to repeat certain words. But Ifes other explanation is that Columbus understood the power of language and the effect repetition has on a reader. It makes Columbuss work more memorable and it constitutes reality.13 Assuming that Las Casas was faithful when he copied certain sections of Columbuss Journal of the first voyage, we can hopefully say that these sections are entirely Columbuss own words and his voice. These parts count for about one-fifth of the whole Journal of the First Voyage. Estelle Irizarry14 conducted a study to see the differences in both Columbuss and Las Casass writings. She finds patterns in certain sections of the Journal that are thought to be Columbuss own voice and sections that are specifically Las Casass summaries. These can show the difference between Columbuss own words and Las Casass contribution. Her results suggest that in the 12 B.W. Ife, Journal of the First Voyage, Warminster 1990, xi. This phrase is said at least ten times within the entire Journal. 13 B.W. Ife, Journal of the First Voyage, Warminster 1990, xiii. 14 Irizarry, Estelle. "The Two Authors ofColumbus' 'Diary'" Computers and Humanities 27.2 (1993): 85-92. Print, 85. Estelle Irizarry is a Professorof Spanish at Georgetown University and Editor of Hispania and Courseware Editor of CHum. She is the authorof over 20 books on Hispanic literature. This study was done in 1993 and, with the help of a computer, ProfessorIrizarry determined how much of the Journal of the First Voyage is Columbuss own writing and how much is Las Casass based on factors such as: word count per sentence,punctuation,and prevalence of religious words.
Astra 9 specifically quoted passages in the Journal, which we must assume are in Columbuss own words due to the article I in them, are significantly longer in sentence length than Las Casass summarizations.15 However, though Irizarry utilizes a computer and gives helpful data, her results are less than conclusive when it comes to longer sentences by both Las Casas and Columbus. Both writers use long sentences more often than shorter ones, according to Irizarrys data which diminishes her initial point: that she can show the differences between Columbuss own words and Las Casass abridgments. Though Irizarry does aid this discussion and give an alternative analysis to Columbuss Journal, I think her works have been superseded by Barry Ife. I have come to this conclusion simply because Ife offers answers and an analysis whereas Irizarry only gives raw data and does not analyze her findings to the extent that she could. One might say she was right for the wrong reasons. From the amount of analysis that she did do, we can take some information away from it. Though we could take into account the different passages Irizarry was testing, it offers the conclusion that Columbus uses less short sentences than Las Casas, which seems to be accurate when one analyzes works by Columbus. This statement is also supported by the text of the Journal. As stated in the Columbus section of this essay, the Admiral was rather keen on verbose and lengthy journal entries. Las Casas was not so, as shown in certain passages of the Journal: They steered on their route west that day and night and made 20 leagues. He reported a few less. Here the men of the Ni単a said that they had seen a tern and a tropic bird, and these birds never depart from land more than 25 leagues.16 15 See Irizarry, Computers and Humanities 1993, 88. From a 5000 word chunk of Las Casass writings taken from the Journal of the First Voyage, there were about 30 sentences that were fewer than 10 words. For the same sized chunk of Columbuss writings taken from the Journal, there were only seven sentences with 10 words or less. 16 Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 31. See September 14th.
Astra 10 These sentences, though long, are not to the extent of Columbuss sentence length. With Columbus, many of his sentences are exceedingly long with many semi-colons and commas, as shown in the Introduction. Las Casas is normally shorter and more direct, as would be expected of a summary. But even with this thought in mind, we can still see how much of Columbuss voice comes through in Las Casass abridgment of Columbuss Journal. For instance, when Las Casas summarizes the proceedings of September 6th in the Journal, he says this: And the Admiral learned from a caravel that was coming from the island of Hierro that three Portuguese caravels were sailing in the vicinity in order to capture him. It must have been from envy that the king felt because of the Admirals having gone away to Castile. And he proceeded all that day and night in very light winds and in the morning he found himself between Gomera and Tenerife.17 Though Las Casas is summarizing Columbus here, we can still hear Columbus speaking. Las Casass reasoning behind the Portuguese king sending ships after Columbus was because the king was probably jealous of Columbus for his voyage. But this seems like a statement that Columbus himself would have said. As Fern叩ndez-Armesto said: His manner and speed exuded ambition. He was pre-disposed to success, unresponsive to setbacks and blind to any obstacle, of however incontestably material a nature, that might lie in his path He had a deep conviction of self-righteousness and the unlimited capacity for self-deception that usual accompanies that quality.18 Columbus was a man of self-righteousness and was capable of self-deception and this statement supports these qualities. Though Las Casas summarized and corrected Columbus in certain areas 17 Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 27. 18 Fern叩ndez-Armesto, Felipe. Columbus and the Conquest of the Impossible. London: Phoenix, 2000. Print. 26.
Astra 11 of this journal, Columbuss main points and his voice come across to the audience. We are still able to hear his personality and envision his actions without Columbuss original words in the Journal and even though it was edited by another person. Columbuss own voice and his words are seen in writings other than in Las Casas copy of the Journal19 in places like his letters back to Spain. Perhaps these letters reveal much about the Admirals personality and mannerisms that are supported by the Journal. For example, when he is writing back to Antonio de Torres, Columbuss correspondent back in Spain with the Catholic Monarchs: [Y]ou will tell their Highnesses, as I charged and ordered you, that I have given strict orders that the gold that you carry with you be placed in the hands of some merchant in Seville, in order that he may therefrom disburse the sums necessary for loading the two caravels with wine, corn, and other articles detailed in this memorial... With quotations like these, which can be seen throughout Columbuss letters to Antonio de Torres, it can be seen just how often Columbus ordered others and showed how prescriptive he was, even with the title of Admiral. Without consulting the Catholic Monarchs, he had already arranged for the supplies he needed to be transported to him with the gold that he was supposed to send back to the Catholic Monarchs. In addition, Columbus begins almost every letter to de Torres with the words, You will rather than requesting de Torres to do something. Columbus was a demanding individual, which is also evident within his own Journal.20 Even in the sections that Las Casas has 19 An obvious limitation of this essay is that we as a world do not have many of the original copies of the texts that I am going to be discussing.The original log-book of Columbuss has been lost to the ages and all that remains is the mainly-summarized version that Las Casas left behind.There is so much more evidence of Columbuss voice and his own words that have disappeared. 20 Many of these works are in Spanish, which was not Columbuss native tongue due to his Italian ancestry but was Las Casass native language, so I will be using translations as I do not speak either of these language. Though this
Astra 12 abridged, Columbus is still depicted as ordering or commanding others to carry out his wishes.21 This is certainly Columbuss voice: Religious in a certain sense, educated but only to an extent, and commanding while also putting his needs before others permission (with the example of the gold given to a merchant instead of the Catholic Monarchs). Fernando Columbus Fernando Columbus (sometimes referred to as Fernando) was Christopher Columbuss second son who voyaged with him on the Fourth Voyage. Though Fernando did not play a part in translating and editing his father's journals22, he did write The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus which tells the story of the voyages, some of which Fernando played a part in, and how this son saw his father. To create this biography, Fernando would have had to have a copy of his fathers Journal, or at least Las Casass abridgment. Certain sections within the biography suggest that he was using Columbuss copy of the log-book which he received from the Catholic Monarchs. For instance, in the Authors Foreword, which is written in Fernandos own words, he says something that suggests he is not using Las Casass work: I promise to tell the story of the Admiral's life only from his own writings and letters and what I myself observed. And whoever suspects that I have added something of my own invention does detract from the accuracy of Columbuss intended words, the differences are small and should not cause many issues. 21 Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 43, 53, and 117. See September 25th, The Admiral ordered the ships to leave their course, October 7th, ... fired a Lombard as a signal that they saw land, because so had ordered the Admiral. He had also ordered that at sunrise and sunset the vessels should join him, and October 28th, He ordered not a thing of all this was to be touched, and thus is was done. 22 Columbus, Fernando.The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus By His Son Ferdinand.Trans.Benjamin Keen. London: Folio Society, 1959. Print, 77. The Historie was not actually published by Fernando himself, but by his nephew, Luis who was hard-pressed for money and had found the manuscript.
Astra 13 may be certain that I know such a thing would profit me nothing in the next life and that none but my readers shall reap the fruits of my labour.23 Had Fernando been using Las Casass abridgment, he would have indicated that at the beginning of the biography. However, he says he is using his fathers own writings and letters. Therefore, we must assume that these works were the originals that Columbus wrote and his Journal must have been the one the Admiral received from the Catholic Monarchs. Fernando would have had access to this copy because it was stored in the Columbus familys library, as indicated in the Introduction. Though this biography of Columbus is from his son's point of view, we can also tease out the parts where Columbus's voice and his own words shine through. For example, in Fernandos biography of his father, we can see Columbuss influence on his son: That night, therefore, after they had sung the Hail Mary as seamen are accustomed to do at nightfall, he spoke to the men of the favour that Our Lord had shown them by conducting them so safely and prosperously with fair winds and a clear course, and by comforting them with signs that daily grew more abundant.24 From this passage, we can see the religious references in which Columbus was so adamant about relaying in his Journal.25 We know that this is Columbuss voice here because Fernando was using his fathers works when the son was creating the biography, and in the Journal Columbus was said to pray often and make many religious references to the Bible as shown in the footnote. Because 23 Keen, London 1959, 25. 24 Keen, London 1959. 77. 25 Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 35 & 41. See September 17th I hope in that mighty God in Whose hands are all victories that very soon He will give us land and September 23rd the high sea was very necessary forme, [a sign] which had not appeared except in the time of the Jews when they left Egypt [and complained] against Moses, who took them out of captivity.
Astra 14 Fernando had access to the majority of his father's writings (his Nachlass) we can find Columbus's thoughts, like the ones above, on the voyages and compare them to Fernando's own voice.26 The Columbus Letter While we have biographies and abridgments of Columbuss words, we also have documents like the Columbus Letter which was written by the Admiral himself and is in his original voice. This letter was sent by Columbus to either Luis de Sant叩ngel (the financial minister of King Ferdinand) or Gabriel Sanchez and was used by the Admiral to spread the news of his homecoming around Europe.27 It was printed in Spanish originally and then in Latin for further dispersal. This letter is important in hearing Columbuss voice in other sources because the letter is in his own words. Barring complications with translators and grammatical changes throughout time, these are (supposedly) the words that Columbus wrote to excite the people of Europe about his return to Granada. It is essentially a recap of the First Voyage and a short description of the islands he discovered. This is significant in showing us Columbuss voice because passages from the letter can be compared with the sections of the Journal Las Casas allegedly copied from Columbuss log- book to determine the accuracy of said passages. For instance, even at the very beginning of the 26 Keen, London 1959, 179. At Medina del Campo, in 1498, the Catholic Sovereigns granted him many favours and privileges in what related both to the Admirals affairs and estate and to the better government and administration of the Indies. I shall give account of these things here in order to make clear the good will of the Sovereigns toward him and their desire to reward him for his merits and services. Later, because of the lying reports of spiteful and envious men, they changed their demeanor and permitted injuries and offences to be done to him, as I shall pres ently relate. Because Fernando was an essentialpart of the litigations in favor of restoring the rights promised to Columbus in the Capitulations, he has made it known in this biography his own opinion on the matter. Though Columbus himself was indeed disappointed because the Catholic Monarchs failed to uphold their end of the bargain, it was his family who fought long and hard for their rights to the title and wealth they were promised. This is Fernandos own contribution, not Columbuss, within the biography. 27Jane, London 1960, xxi.
Astra 15 letter28, the grammar and punctuation seems to be similar (if not identical) to the beginning of the Journal in the section where Columbus is supposedly quoted directly from the log-book (see explanation in Las Casas and Columbus section about Columbuss punctuation). Not only does the Journal show similarities in punctuation, but the descriptions of the islands and the ocean are very similar to the sections where Las Casas supposedly transcribed faithfully from Columbuss original log-book. For instance, within the Columbus Letter, the Admiral tries to explain the beauty of the islands: [M]ost lofty mountains incomparably beyond the island of Tenerife, all the most beautiful in a thousand kinds, so lofty that they seem to reach the sky. And I am assured that they never lose their foliage; as may be imagined, since I saw them as green and as beautiful as they are in Spain during May.29 Columbus, within Las Casass abridgment, writes almost the same description in the Journal on December 20th.30 In addition, Columbus constantly compares the beauty of the islands in the Indies to Spain, which is also shown in the Journal.31 Sections such as these show how similar the Las Casas abridgment and the Columbus Letter not only in punctuation but also with descriptions. If Las Casass summaries and supposed-transcriptions are so similar, it leads me to believe that Las Casas faithfully transcribed and summarized Columbuss log-book. 28 Jane, London 1960, 191. Sir: As I know that you will have pleasure from the great victory which our Lord hath given me in my voyage,I write you this,by which you shall know that in thirty-three days I passed overto the Indies with the fleet which the most illustrious King and Queen, our Lords, gave me; where I found very many islands peopled with inhabitants beyond number. 29 Jane, London 1960, 192. 30 Jane, London 1960, 108. it ran down to the harbor from the south-east and was all fenced in by very lofty mountains, which seemed to touch the sky, in which were very beautiful, full of green trees,and without a doubt there are there loftier mountains than the island of Tenerife in the Canaries, which is held to be one of the loftiest that can be found. 31 Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 251. Here and in all the island everything is green and the vegetation is like April in Andalusia.
Astra 16 The Capitulations of Santa Fe In addition to examining those who had an effect on Columbuss voice and words, we can also see certain documents which indirectly or indeed vicariously express the Admirals words. Documents like the Capitulations of Santa Fe, the documents which stipulated what rewards Columbus would acquire should he find new land for the Catholic Monarchs, are perfect examples of Columbuss indirect voice. Though they were not written by Columbus himself, there are echoes of his voice and his influence is apparent in them. This is another instance where Columbuss voice is embedded in the writings of others rather than his own. This document was most likely drawn up by Columbus and his lawyers before he left for his First Voyage and was signed by the Catholic Monarchs without hesitation. The Capitulations generally stated these five stipulations: 1. To appoint Columbus Admiral and Don for all his life and his heirs, and those islands and main-lands which were discovered. 2. To grant the title and position of viceroy and governor of all lands discovered or won by Columbus. 3. To grant Columbus a tenth of all goods and products (gold) of any kind in which were obtained in the lands he discovered. 4. Giving Columbus the right to serve as a judge in any kind of problems related to wealth. 5. Giving Columbus the right to participate in one-eighth of the profits of the entire fleet and the grant of trade with other countries identified.32 32Nader, Helen and Christopher Columbus. The Book ofPrivileges Issued to Christopher Columbus by King Fernando and Queen Isabel, 1492-1502.Berkeley: University of California, 1996. Print. Due to certain research restrictions, a full copy of the Capitulations of Santa Fe could not be found. The Book of Privileges has a summary of the Capitulations. 17-24.
Astra 17 However, when Columbus upheld his part of the bargain (discovering certain islands in the Indies), the Catholic Monarchs renegaded on their promises to him. These stipulations surely reflect Columbuss influences and what he desired to take away from this first voyage. For example, within the third stipulation it is apparent that Columbus will receive one-tenth of all of the gold and products that are discovered on the islands. This shows that Columbus values gold and money, considering two out of the five stipulations have to do with profits and gold. This is also confirmed by the Journal because whenever he attempts to speak with the natives he meets, he always inquires as to where he can find gold.33 It is also shown in the Columbus Letter that the Admiral is very concerned with the goods and valuables of the new islands that he discovered simply because he references it many times.34 Columbuss demanding personality also is shown throughout this document just like it is shown in the letters written to Antonio de Torres (see Las Casas and Columbus section). In can be seen specifically in the first stipulation of the Capitulations. According to Helen Nader, Columbus fought heavily for the right to an inheritable title and possessions that he would obtain from his voyage. The Catholic Monarchs were hesitant specifically because these clauses violated the very nature of their monarchy.35 But Columbus had his way in the end and the stipulation was put into the Capitulations. Just like he ordered others around when he was on his voyage, he managed to 33Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 141 & 145. See November 6th Today I pulled the ship off the beach and made ready to leave on Thursday,in the name of God, and to go to the southeast to seekgold and spices and to explore land and November 12th, Because without doubt there is in these lands a very great quantity of gold; for not without cause do these Indians that I bring with me say that there are in these islands places where they dig gold and wear it on their chests, on their ears, and on their arms, and on their legs; and they are very thick bracelets. 34Jane, London 1960, 194. In the earth there are many mines of metals the mountains and hills, and plains, and fields, and the soil, so beautiful and rich for planting and sowing, for breeding cattle of all sorts,for building of towns and villages the many and great rivers, and excellent waters, most of which contain gold There are many spiceries and great mines of gold and other metals. 35Nader, Helen. Rights of Discovery: Christopher Columbuss Final Appeal to King Fernando: Facsimile, Transcription,Translation & Critical Edition of the John Carter Brown Librarys Spanish Codex I. Cali, Colombia: Carvajal, 1992. Print. 3.
Astra 18 order the Catholic Monarchs into letting him have this title (even though they did renegade on these stipulations after the voyage). His actions and voice are still seen in contracts and documents he did not even write. Conclusions After all of this, what are we left with? One of the most prevalent issues with Columbuss Nachlass is that it is found within the works of others so we do not know how much of it retains Columbuss original voice. From the analysis of Las Casas and Columbus, we can see that there are many grammatical, descriptive, and lingual markers that Las Casas left in his transcription of the Journal that would only have come from Columbus. When we look at the Columbus Letter, we are shown the Admirals own words and voice. This gave us a valid comparison between the Journal and the Letter. With the analysis of the Capitulations of Santa Fe, we are shown exactly what Columbus valued (which is also expressed by the Journal) and how demanding he was, even to the Catholic Monarchs. Finally, through all of these analyses, it can be said that Las Casass abridgment contains much of Columbuss voice and, especially comparing the sections where Las Casas transcribed Columbuss own words with the Columbus Letter, it is evident that Las Casas was faithful in his version of the Admirals Journal of theFirst Voyage. In light of this information and as shown with the additional documents about Columbus, if we as an audience listen carefully, we can hear the voice of the Admiral in the Journal as well.
Astra 19 Bibliography Bartosik-Velez, Elise. The First Interpretations of the Columbian Enterprise. Revista Canadiense De Estudios Hispanicos 33.2 (2009): 317-334. Print. B.W. Ife, Christopher Columbus, and Ralph J. Penny. Journal of the First Voyage, 1492 = Diario Del Primer Viaje, 1492. Warminster, England: Aris & Phillips, 1990. Print. Cohen, J.M. The Four Voyages of Christopher Columbus; Being His Own Log-book, Letters, and Dispatches with Connecting Narrative Drawn from the Life of the Admiral by His Son Hernando Colon and Other Contemporary Historians. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969. Print. Jane, Cecil and Christopher Columbus. The Journal of Christopher Columbus. London: Anthony Blond & The Orion, 1960. Print. Columbus, Fernando. The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus By His Son Ferdinand. Trans. Benjamin Keen. London: Folio Society, 1959. Print. Dunn, O.C., James E. Kelley, Christopher Columbus, and Bartolom辿 De Las Casas. The Diario of Christopher Columbuss First Voyage to America, 1492-1493. Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1989. Print. Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe. Columbus and the Conquest of the Impossible. London: Phoenix, 2000. Print. Flint, Valerie I. J. The Imaginative Landscape of Christopher Columbus. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1992. Print. Henige, David P. In Search of Columbus: The Sources for the First Voyage. Tucson: University of Arizona, 1991. Print. Irizarry, Estelle. "The Two Authors of Columbus' 'Diary'" Computers and Humanities 27.2 (1993): 85-92. Print. Keeley, Graham. Columbus Exposed as Iron-Fisted Tyrant Who Tortured His Slaves. The Independent. Independent Digital News and Media, 21 July 2006. Web. 24 March 2015. Nachlass. Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press, 12 February 2015. Web. 31 March 2015. Nader, Helen. Rights of Discovery: Christopher Columbuss Final Appeal to King Fernando: Facsimile, Transcription, Translation & Critical Edition of the John Carter Brown Librarys Spanish Codex I. Cali, Colombia: Carvajal, 1992. Print. Nader, Helen and Christopher Columbus. The Book of Privileges Issued to Christopher Columbus by King Fernando and Queen Isabel, 1492-1502. Berkeley: University of California, 1996. Print.
Astra 20 Williams, Jerry M., and Robert Earl Lewis. Early Images of the Americas: Transfer and Invention. Tucson: University of Arizona, 1993. Print.

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Final Research Essay - Columbus's Voice

  • 1. Astra 1 Voices Off-Stage? Recovering the Writings of Christopher Columbus Nachlass There is a German word which is often used in the scholarly and academic world called Nachlass. It is a compound word coming from the words nach, which means after, and lassen, which means to leave. Together, this word is used to define the manuscripts, notes, letters, and other such works that are left behind when an author dies, and are normally unpublished.1 These works are especially important because they can add so much to what we know about the writer: what they valued, what they were interested in, and what kind of person they were in general. With a little imagination, this same word and concept can be applied to Christopher Columbus, the famous explorer from Genoa, commissioned by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain, who discovered from a European perspective various islands in the Indies. Of course, Columbuss written legacy is not so much found in unpublished manuscripts left behind after his death in the Journal but rather embedded in the works of others. The writings of others, most notably Bartolome de las Casas in the case of The Journal of the First Voyage, and indeed in the exchange of treaties with the Catholic Monarchs. Problems with Columbuss Nachlass As Felipe Fern叩ndez-Armesto stated in his biography of Christopher Columbus, forgeries and false documents were prevalent in Columbuss time when historians were searching for his documents. This leaves us as readers in a very difficult situation as we attempt to dissect the writing 1Nachlass. Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press, 12 February 2015. Web. 31 March 2015.
  • 2. Astra 2 and warped information from the text and try to emerge with Columbuss own voice. While I show how much of Columbuss voice comes through in Las Casass abridgment, it is imperative that I explain some limitations of this essay. One limitation is the length. Though this essay is extensive and it is meant to take an in-depth look at Columbuss voice in his Nachlass, there will always be documents that I cannot either acquire or analyze due to length and time restrictions. So for the sake of adhering to the word count of this essay, I will primarily be analyzing Christopher Columbuss log-book of 1492 (or the abridgment of it by Las Casas) and incorporate other works by him, or about him, specifically the Capitulations of Santa Fe and the Columbus Letter. There are other texts and fragments of Columbuss writings that could be analyzed in detail but these are the ones that will be focused on in this essay. A Note on the Journal of the First Voyage The only version of the Journal is in Las Casas and we have to ascertain how faithful a transcription or copy it the scholars work is. The question of Christopher Columbuss authentic voice is to be found in many works, yet it is explicitly an issue in regard to his so-called Journal of the First Voyage. Because Columbuss words are embedded are primarily embedded in the works of others, how much of them actually contain his voice and his words? Throughout this essay, I will explain that much of Columbuss voice is still preserved not only in his own writings through Las Casass quoted texted, but also through Las Casass summaries of the so-called Journal of the First Voyage and Fernando Columbuss biography. Columbus gave the Catholic Monarchs the logbook that he supposedly (as we do not know for sure whether he kept it every day because we do not have the original copy) kept day to day on his journey from the West Indies back to Spain. They did not return it but instead retained it and a copy was sent to Columbus before he set sail on his second voyage. The copy was probably kept
  • 3. Astra 3 in Columbuss family archives and was most likely the copy in which Luis Columbus, the renowns grandson, granted permission to be published. However, both the original and the copy sent to the Columbus family have disappeared in the passage of time.2 The full contents of the diaries are unknown simply because we do not know the location of them. The organizational chart, or stemmata chart, below explains the progression of Columbuss log-book and the copy that was given back to him by the Catholic Monarchs. As I will establish within this essay, both Las Casas and Fernando were most likely using the Catholic Monarch copy of Columbuss log-book when they created their abridgments. Both of these abridgments were found and published by Luis Columbus when he found them in the Columbus family library/archives. Both the original log-book that was retained by the Catholic Monarchs and they copy they sent back to Columbus have been lost to the ages, as expressed in the chart. 2 Jane, Cecil and Christopher Columbus. The Journal of Christopher Columbus. London: Anthony Blond & The Orion, 1960. Print. This background information can be found in the Foreword of the Cecil Jane translation, xv- xxiii. Christopher Columbus's Original Log-Book - Whereabouts Unknown, OriginallyRetained by CatholicMonarchs CatholicMonarch Copy - Whereabouts Unknown Las Casas Abridgment - Published byLuis Columbus Fernando Columbus Biographyand Abridgment - Published byLuis Columbus
  • 4. Astra 4 The issue at hand is whether or how far Las Casass abridgment deviates from Columbuss original words. We have the abstract text by Bartolom辿 de las Casas and we can postulate that he used either or both of the copies of the texts that existed at that time. We can tell this from certain quoted passages which supposedly are copied word-for-word from Columbuss diary. Other parts of Las Casas text are abridged from the original work. While he copied Columbuss diary of the first voyage, he also made a copy of the third voyage. This version of the Journal remained unknown for a long time but was discovered by Martin Fern叩ndez de Navarrete in the Duke del Infantados library and it was then published in 1825. Because Navarrete had been in the Spanish navy, he had corrected some of Las Casas inaccurate navigation instructions. After Columbus wrote the Journal, it had been through the scribes that the Catholic Monarchs hired to copy it, Las Casas who had copied it and created his own semi-abridged version of it, and then minor changes again were made by Navarrete.3 This shows that the original word of Columbus could have been changed drastically. Knowing this information, how much of Columbus voice actually made it through to his readers? After all of these edits done not only by other individuals like Las Casas or Navarrete, but also by Columbus himself, how much of his original voice has been retained and how much has been lost to the ages? These questions will be answered in this essay. Las Casas as Editor Las Casass contribution to the diaries has been essential specifically because if he had not intervened and created his abridgment of the Journal of the First Voyage, there would be no existing record of it. Because his father and uncle had accompanied Columbus on the second 3 Jane, London 1960, See Foreword for biographical information on pages xv-xxiii.
  • 5. Astra 5 voyage to the Indies in 1493, Bartolom辿 was the one who began collecting material about the history of the Indies almost a decade after Columbus first sailed there. Las Casas was heavily involved in the controversy surrounding the oppression of the Indians of the New World as well as questioning the legitimacy of the Spanish presence in the New World.4 Within his magnum opus, Historia de las Indias, he quotes heavily (though we do not know if it is accurately) from Columbuss Journals, normally from the Journal of the First Voyage. As previously stated in the Introduction above, the copy of the first voyage journal Las Casas used was most likely the copy that Isabella made and gave back to Columbus. Las Casas was also an accomplished historian and was given a lengthy education, something that is apparent within his writing and can be contrasted with Columbuss writings as well. With this information on Las Casas, it becomes difficult to ascertain exactly how much of the Journal the editor changed or abridged. B.W. Ife makes a valid point in his Introduction to the Journal of the First Voyage by stating that: [T]he manuscript is at two removes from the original: a digest of a copy of the original, which may itself have been a fair copy rather than the actual log-book which Columbus wrote up from day to day on board ship. We can only assume that the copy from which Las Casas worked was reasonably faithful, although he was himself aware of inaccuracies and mis- transcriptions. At times, Las Casas tries to correct or even casts doubt on Columbuss calculations or even his knowledge of certain subjects.5 This is the contribution that Las Casas has made to Columbuss 4 B.W. Ife, Christopher Columbus, and Ralph J. Penny. Journal of the First Voyage, 1492 = Diario Del Primer Viaje, 1492.Warminster, England: Aris & Phillips, 1990. Print. For biographical information on Bartolom辿 de las Casas,see B.W. Ifes Introduction, v-xxv. 5 B.W. Ife Introduction and Translation of Journal of the First Voyage, Warminster 1990, vii. See January 13th, here it seems that the Admiral knew something about astrology, although these planets do not seem to be in their
  • 6. Astra 6 Journal and to the world. Las Casas has given us his own digestion and paraphrased version of Columbuss voice, though it is apparent through much of the Journal that Columbuss voice emerges from Las Casass abridgments. Columbuss own voice, which I am arguing has been preserved throughout Las Casass abridgment, is to be defined as the Admirals own words. So how can we find Columbuss true voice in these writings of his? How can we differentiate what Columbus was attempting to say in his log-book from what Las Casas summarized it as? One way we can do so is by examining the sections where Las Casas is paraphrasing Columbus and where the editor is directly quoting (supposedly). This can be seen in the Journal, and is especially evident within the prologue of the Diary of the First Voyage.6 In Columbuss address to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, which has not been paraphrased by Las Casas and was taken directly from Columbuss diary (according to Las Casas), there are many run-on sentences that are only broken up by semi-colons or commas. In the prologue, Columbus explains the achievements of the Catholic Monarchs and their piety and only ends the thought with a period after a page and a half of semi-colons.7 B.W. Ife explains this as Columbus suffering from an over-complexity of syntax, which seems apparent within this passage. This element of Columbuss writing seems to be another form of his personal style and another part of his voice that has been preserved throughout many editions and abridgments.8 proper positions,due to bad transcription by the copyist and October 8th, He steered WSW and they made about 11 and a half or 12 leagues during the day and night and it seems that at times during the night they were making 15 miles an hour, if the text is to believed. 6Dunn, O.C., James E. Kelley, Christopher Columbus, and Bartolom辿 De Las Casas. The Diario of Christopher Columbuss First Voyage to America, 1492-1493.Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1989. Print, 17. Las Casas here states that the beginning of the Journal, This is the first voyage and the courses and way that the Admiral Don Christ坦bal Col坦n took when he discovered the Indies, summarized except for the prologue that he composed for the king and queen which is given in full and begins this way. Alludes to the fact that the rest of the Journal will be summarized, which did not happen as we can tell from the parts where the Journal slips into the first person,assuming those parts are direct quotes from Columbuss original log-book. 7 B.W. Ife, Warminster 1990, 19. 8 B.W. Ife, Warminster 1990, xi.
  • 7. Astra 7 As was previously mentioned, Columbus was a natural-born Italian speaker so he acquired Spanish as a second language. This is also especially evident within the Journal at certain parts in the original Spanish9. However, Las Casas (who was a natural-born Spanish speaker) corrected some of these phrases and grammatical issues in Columbuss Spanish Journal. In addition, we must remember that Las Casas was writing his abridgment of Columbuss Journal about 30 years after the Admiral had finished them so certain lingual changes that were developing in his time might have been different in Las Casass era.10 Columbuss Italian/Genoese heritage certainly has an effect on some of his spelling and word choice, even in the Spanish text. For instance, Ife points this out in his Introduction to the Journal of the First Voyage: The otherwise unprecedented form s鱈mplice(s) `simple', used by Columbus may owe its form to interference from a Genoese cognate of Italian s辿mplice. Likewise, the final vowel of doblo may be accounted for in similar manner (cf. Italian doppio). Doblo does not elsewhere appear in Spanish until 1640, and then only as a legal term.11 These terms are used within the Journal at different points but both, as shown by B.W. Ife, have Italian characteristics and have little to do with the Spanish language. Columbuss words reflect his background in these instances. Columbus also does something frequently which is a form of repetition which Ife calls formulaic description. This is something that Columbus did by himself and Las Casas probably would have copied from the original log-book. This technique is where the writer repeats certain 9 B.W. Ife, Warminster 1990, xxvii. Unless we are dealing with an error of transcription by Las Casas, Columbus confuses indicative and subjunctive mood in the following case: no me pare巽e que las puede aver. See November 27th, in Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 185. 10 B.W. Ife, Warminster 1990, vi. 11 B. W. Ife, Journal of the First Voyage, Warminster 1990. See October 14th for simplice (78) and on December 26th for doblo.
  • 8. Astra 8 bits of information (a canoa being a boat made from a single piece of wood12) for the sake of the audience. We know this technique is done by Columbus, and not Las Casas, because this would have been information that Las Casas would have known. He would not have needed to copy down this information multiple times if the abridgment was just for his own eyes. Las Casas uses these formulaic descriptions because they were prevalent in Columbuss copy of the Journal. In addition, there are certain descriptions that are repeated throughout the Journal, for instance the comparison of the calm sea that Columbus is sailing on to the river at Seville. Ife has several explanations for these repetitious phrases, one being that Columbus did not have many Spanish words to describe what he was seeing and had to repeat certain words. But Ifes other explanation is that Columbus understood the power of language and the effect repetition has on a reader. It makes Columbuss work more memorable and it constitutes reality.13 Assuming that Las Casas was faithful when he copied certain sections of Columbuss Journal of the first voyage, we can hopefully say that these sections are entirely Columbuss own words and his voice. These parts count for about one-fifth of the whole Journal of the First Voyage. Estelle Irizarry14 conducted a study to see the differences in both Columbuss and Las Casass writings. She finds patterns in certain sections of the Journal that are thought to be Columbuss own voice and sections that are specifically Las Casass summaries. These can show the difference between Columbuss own words and Las Casass contribution. Her results suggest that in the 12 B.W. Ife, Journal of the First Voyage, Warminster 1990, xi. This phrase is said at least ten times within the entire Journal. 13 B.W. Ife, Journal of the First Voyage, Warminster 1990, xiii. 14 Irizarry, Estelle. "The Two Authors ofColumbus' 'Diary'" Computers and Humanities 27.2 (1993): 85-92. Print, 85. Estelle Irizarry is a Professorof Spanish at Georgetown University and Editor of Hispania and Courseware Editor of CHum. She is the authorof over 20 books on Hispanic literature. This study was done in 1993 and, with the help of a computer, ProfessorIrizarry determined how much of the Journal of the First Voyage is Columbuss own writing and how much is Las Casass based on factors such as: word count per sentence,punctuation,and prevalence of religious words.
  • 9. Astra 9 specifically quoted passages in the Journal, which we must assume are in Columbuss own words due to the article I in them, are significantly longer in sentence length than Las Casass summarizations.15 However, though Irizarry utilizes a computer and gives helpful data, her results are less than conclusive when it comes to longer sentences by both Las Casas and Columbus. Both writers use long sentences more often than shorter ones, according to Irizarrys data which diminishes her initial point: that she can show the differences between Columbuss own words and Las Casass abridgments. Though Irizarry does aid this discussion and give an alternative analysis to Columbuss Journal, I think her works have been superseded by Barry Ife. I have come to this conclusion simply because Ife offers answers and an analysis whereas Irizarry only gives raw data and does not analyze her findings to the extent that she could. One might say she was right for the wrong reasons. From the amount of analysis that she did do, we can take some information away from it. Though we could take into account the different passages Irizarry was testing, it offers the conclusion that Columbus uses less short sentences than Las Casas, which seems to be accurate when one analyzes works by Columbus. This statement is also supported by the text of the Journal. As stated in the Columbus section of this essay, the Admiral was rather keen on verbose and lengthy journal entries. Las Casas was not so, as shown in certain passages of the Journal: They steered on their route west that day and night and made 20 leagues. He reported a few less. Here the men of the Ni単a said that they had seen a tern and a tropic bird, and these birds never depart from land more than 25 leagues.16 15 See Irizarry, Computers and Humanities 1993, 88. From a 5000 word chunk of Las Casass writings taken from the Journal of the First Voyage, there were about 30 sentences that were fewer than 10 words. For the same sized chunk of Columbuss writings taken from the Journal, there were only seven sentences with 10 words or less. 16 Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 31. See September 14th.
  • 10. Astra 10 These sentences, though long, are not to the extent of Columbuss sentence length. With Columbus, many of his sentences are exceedingly long with many semi-colons and commas, as shown in the Introduction. Las Casas is normally shorter and more direct, as would be expected of a summary. But even with this thought in mind, we can still see how much of Columbuss voice comes through in Las Casass abridgment of Columbuss Journal. For instance, when Las Casas summarizes the proceedings of September 6th in the Journal, he says this: And the Admiral learned from a caravel that was coming from the island of Hierro that three Portuguese caravels were sailing in the vicinity in order to capture him. It must have been from envy that the king felt because of the Admirals having gone away to Castile. And he proceeded all that day and night in very light winds and in the morning he found himself between Gomera and Tenerife.17 Though Las Casas is summarizing Columbus here, we can still hear Columbus speaking. Las Casass reasoning behind the Portuguese king sending ships after Columbus was because the king was probably jealous of Columbus for his voyage. But this seems like a statement that Columbus himself would have said. As Fern叩ndez-Armesto said: His manner and speed exuded ambition. He was pre-disposed to success, unresponsive to setbacks and blind to any obstacle, of however incontestably material a nature, that might lie in his path He had a deep conviction of self-righteousness and the unlimited capacity for self-deception that usual accompanies that quality.18 Columbus was a man of self-righteousness and was capable of self-deception and this statement supports these qualities. Though Las Casas summarized and corrected Columbus in certain areas 17 Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 27. 18 Fern叩ndez-Armesto, Felipe. Columbus and the Conquest of the Impossible. London: Phoenix, 2000. Print. 26.
  • 11. Astra 11 of this journal, Columbuss main points and his voice come across to the audience. We are still able to hear his personality and envision his actions without Columbuss original words in the Journal and even though it was edited by another person. Columbuss own voice and his words are seen in writings other than in Las Casas copy of the Journal19 in places like his letters back to Spain. Perhaps these letters reveal much about the Admirals personality and mannerisms that are supported by the Journal. For example, when he is writing back to Antonio de Torres, Columbuss correspondent back in Spain with the Catholic Monarchs: [Y]ou will tell their Highnesses, as I charged and ordered you, that I have given strict orders that the gold that you carry with you be placed in the hands of some merchant in Seville, in order that he may therefrom disburse the sums necessary for loading the two caravels with wine, corn, and other articles detailed in this memorial... With quotations like these, which can be seen throughout Columbuss letters to Antonio de Torres, it can be seen just how often Columbus ordered others and showed how prescriptive he was, even with the title of Admiral. Without consulting the Catholic Monarchs, he had already arranged for the supplies he needed to be transported to him with the gold that he was supposed to send back to the Catholic Monarchs. In addition, Columbus begins almost every letter to de Torres with the words, You will rather than requesting de Torres to do something. Columbus was a demanding individual, which is also evident within his own Journal.20 Even in the sections that Las Casas has 19 An obvious limitation of this essay is that we as a world do not have many of the original copies of the texts that I am going to be discussing.The original log-book of Columbuss has been lost to the ages and all that remains is the mainly-summarized version that Las Casas left behind.There is so much more evidence of Columbuss voice and his own words that have disappeared. 20 Many of these works are in Spanish, which was not Columbuss native tongue due to his Italian ancestry but was Las Casass native language, so I will be using translations as I do not speak either of these language. Though this
  • 12. Astra 12 abridged, Columbus is still depicted as ordering or commanding others to carry out his wishes.21 This is certainly Columbuss voice: Religious in a certain sense, educated but only to an extent, and commanding while also putting his needs before others permission (with the example of the gold given to a merchant instead of the Catholic Monarchs). Fernando Columbus Fernando Columbus (sometimes referred to as Fernando) was Christopher Columbuss second son who voyaged with him on the Fourth Voyage. Though Fernando did not play a part in translating and editing his father's journals22, he did write The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus which tells the story of the voyages, some of which Fernando played a part in, and how this son saw his father. To create this biography, Fernando would have had to have a copy of his fathers Journal, or at least Las Casass abridgment. Certain sections within the biography suggest that he was using Columbuss copy of the log-book which he received from the Catholic Monarchs. For instance, in the Authors Foreword, which is written in Fernandos own words, he says something that suggests he is not using Las Casass work: I promise to tell the story of the Admiral's life only from his own writings and letters and what I myself observed. And whoever suspects that I have added something of my own invention does detract from the accuracy of Columbuss intended words, the differences are small and should not cause many issues. 21 Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 43, 53, and 117. See September 25th, The Admiral ordered the ships to leave their course, October 7th, ... fired a Lombard as a signal that they saw land, because so had ordered the Admiral. He had also ordered that at sunrise and sunset the vessels should join him, and October 28th, He ordered not a thing of all this was to be touched, and thus is was done. 22 Columbus, Fernando.The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus By His Son Ferdinand.Trans.Benjamin Keen. London: Folio Society, 1959. Print, 77. The Historie was not actually published by Fernando himself, but by his nephew, Luis who was hard-pressed for money and had found the manuscript.
  • 13. Astra 13 may be certain that I know such a thing would profit me nothing in the next life and that none but my readers shall reap the fruits of my labour.23 Had Fernando been using Las Casass abridgment, he would have indicated that at the beginning of the biography. However, he says he is using his fathers own writings and letters. Therefore, we must assume that these works were the originals that Columbus wrote and his Journal must have been the one the Admiral received from the Catholic Monarchs. Fernando would have had access to this copy because it was stored in the Columbus familys library, as indicated in the Introduction. Though this biography of Columbus is from his son's point of view, we can also tease out the parts where Columbus's voice and his own words shine through. For example, in Fernandos biography of his father, we can see Columbuss influence on his son: That night, therefore, after they had sung the Hail Mary as seamen are accustomed to do at nightfall, he spoke to the men of the favour that Our Lord had shown them by conducting them so safely and prosperously with fair winds and a clear course, and by comforting them with signs that daily grew more abundant.24 From this passage, we can see the religious references in which Columbus was so adamant about relaying in his Journal.25 We know that this is Columbuss voice here because Fernando was using his fathers works when the son was creating the biography, and in the Journal Columbus was said to pray often and make many religious references to the Bible as shown in the footnote. Because 23 Keen, London 1959, 25. 24 Keen, London 1959. 77. 25 Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 35 & 41. See September 17th I hope in that mighty God in Whose hands are all victories that very soon He will give us land and September 23rd the high sea was very necessary forme, [a sign] which had not appeared except in the time of the Jews when they left Egypt [and complained] against Moses, who took them out of captivity.
  • 14. Astra 14 Fernando had access to the majority of his father's writings (his Nachlass) we can find Columbus's thoughts, like the ones above, on the voyages and compare them to Fernando's own voice.26 The Columbus Letter While we have biographies and abridgments of Columbuss words, we also have documents like the Columbus Letter which was written by the Admiral himself and is in his original voice. This letter was sent by Columbus to either Luis de Sant叩ngel (the financial minister of King Ferdinand) or Gabriel Sanchez and was used by the Admiral to spread the news of his homecoming around Europe.27 It was printed in Spanish originally and then in Latin for further dispersal. This letter is important in hearing Columbuss voice in other sources because the letter is in his own words. Barring complications with translators and grammatical changes throughout time, these are (supposedly) the words that Columbus wrote to excite the people of Europe about his return to Granada. It is essentially a recap of the First Voyage and a short description of the islands he discovered. This is significant in showing us Columbuss voice because passages from the letter can be compared with the sections of the Journal Las Casas allegedly copied from Columbuss log- book to determine the accuracy of said passages. For instance, even at the very beginning of the 26 Keen, London 1959, 179. At Medina del Campo, in 1498, the Catholic Sovereigns granted him many favours and privileges in what related both to the Admirals affairs and estate and to the better government and administration of the Indies. I shall give account of these things here in order to make clear the good will of the Sovereigns toward him and their desire to reward him for his merits and services. Later, because of the lying reports of spiteful and envious men, they changed their demeanor and permitted injuries and offences to be done to him, as I shall pres ently relate. Because Fernando was an essentialpart of the litigations in favor of restoring the rights promised to Columbus in the Capitulations, he has made it known in this biography his own opinion on the matter. Though Columbus himself was indeed disappointed because the Catholic Monarchs failed to uphold their end of the bargain, it was his family who fought long and hard for their rights to the title and wealth they were promised. This is Fernandos own contribution, not Columbuss, within the biography. 27Jane, London 1960, xxi.
  • 15. Astra 15 letter28, the grammar and punctuation seems to be similar (if not identical) to the beginning of the Journal in the section where Columbus is supposedly quoted directly from the log-book (see explanation in Las Casas and Columbus section about Columbuss punctuation). Not only does the Journal show similarities in punctuation, but the descriptions of the islands and the ocean are very similar to the sections where Las Casas supposedly transcribed faithfully from Columbuss original log-book. For instance, within the Columbus Letter, the Admiral tries to explain the beauty of the islands: [M]ost lofty mountains incomparably beyond the island of Tenerife, all the most beautiful in a thousand kinds, so lofty that they seem to reach the sky. And I am assured that they never lose their foliage; as may be imagined, since I saw them as green and as beautiful as they are in Spain during May.29 Columbus, within Las Casass abridgment, writes almost the same description in the Journal on December 20th.30 In addition, Columbus constantly compares the beauty of the islands in the Indies to Spain, which is also shown in the Journal.31 Sections such as these show how similar the Las Casas abridgment and the Columbus Letter not only in punctuation but also with descriptions. If Las Casass summaries and supposed-transcriptions are so similar, it leads me to believe that Las Casas faithfully transcribed and summarized Columbuss log-book. 28 Jane, London 1960, 191. Sir: As I know that you will have pleasure from the great victory which our Lord hath given me in my voyage,I write you this,by which you shall know that in thirty-three days I passed overto the Indies with the fleet which the most illustrious King and Queen, our Lords, gave me; where I found very many islands peopled with inhabitants beyond number. 29 Jane, London 1960, 192. 30 Jane, London 1960, 108. it ran down to the harbor from the south-east and was all fenced in by very lofty mountains, which seemed to touch the sky, in which were very beautiful, full of green trees,and without a doubt there are there loftier mountains than the island of Tenerife in the Canaries, which is held to be one of the loftiest that can be found. 31 Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 251. Here and in all the island everything is green and the vegetation is like April in Andalusia.
  • 16. Astra 16 The Capitulations of Santa Fe In addition to examining those who had an effect on Columbuss voice and words, we can also see certain documents which indirectly or indeed vicariously express the Admirals words. Documents like the Capitulations of Santa Fe, the documents which stipulated what rewards Columbus would acquire should he find new land for the Catholic Monarchs, are perfect examples of Columbuss indirect voice. Though they were not written by Columbus himself, there are echoes of his voice and his influence is apparent in them. This is another instance where Columbuss voice is embedded in the writings of others rather than his own. This document was most likely drawn up by Columbus and his lawyers before he left for his First Voyage and was signed by the Catholic Monarchs without hesitation. The Capitulations generally stated these five stipulations: 1. To appoint Columbus Admiral and Don for all his life and his heirs, and those islands and main-lands which were discovered. 2. To grant the title and position of viceroy and governor of all lands discovered or won by Columbus. 3. To grant Columbus a tenth of all goods and products (gold) of any kind in which were obtained in the lands he discovered. 4. Giving Columbus the right to serve as a judge in any kind of problems related to wealth. 5. Giving Columbus the right to participate in one-eighth of the profits of the entire fleet and the grant of trade with other countries identified.32 32Nader, Helen and Christopher Columbus. The Book ofPrivileges Issued to Christopher Columbus by King Fernando and Queen Isabel, 1492-1502.Berkeley: University of California, 1996. Print. Due to certain research restrictions, a full copy of the Capitulations of Santa Fe could not be found. The Book of Privileges has a summary of the Capitulations. 17-24.
  • 17. Astra 17 However, when Columbus upheld his part of the bargain (discovering certain islands in the Indies), the Catholic Monarchs renegaded on their promises to him. These stipulations surely reflect Columbuss influences and what he desired to take away from this first voyage. For example, within the third stipulation it is apparent that Columbus will receive one-tenth of all of the gold and products that are discovered on the islands. This shows that Columbus values gold and money, considering two out of the five stipulations have to do with profits and gold. This is also confirmed by the Journal because whenever he attempts to speak with the natives he meets, he always inquires as to where he can find gold.33 It is also shown in the Columbus Letter that the Admiral is very concerned with the goods and valuables of the new islands that he discovered simply because he references it many times.34 Columbuss demanding personality also is shown throughout this document just like it is shown in the letters written to Antonio de Torres (see Las Casas and Columbus section). In can be seen specifically in the first stipulation of the Capitulations. According to Helen Nader, Columbus fought heavily for the right to an inheritable title and possessions that he would obtain from his voyage. The Catholic Monarchs were hesitant specifically because these clauses violated the very nature of their monarchy.35 But Columbus had his way in the end and the stipulation was put into the Capitulations. Just like he ordered others around when he was on his voyage, he managed to 33Dunn & Kelley, Norman 1989, 141 & 145. See November 6th Today I pulled the ship off the beach and made ready to leave on Thursday,in the name of God, and to go to the southeast to seekgold and spices and to explore land and November 12th, Because without doubt there is in these lands a very great quantity of gold; for not without cause do these Indians that I bring with me say that there are in these islands places where they dig gold and wear it on their chests, on their ears, and on their arms, and on their legs; and they are very thick bracelets. 34Jane, London 1960, 194. In the earth there are many mines of metals the mountains and hills, and plains, and fields, and the soil, so beautiful and rich for planting and sowing, for breeding cattle of all sorts,for building of towns and villages the many and great rivers, and excellent waters, most of which contain gold There are many spiceries and great mines of gold and other metals. 35Nader, Helen. Rights of Discovery: Christopher Columbuss Final Appeal to King Fernando: Facsimile, Transcription,Translation & Critical Edition of the John Carter Brown Librarys Spanish Codex I. Cali, Colombia: Carvajal, 1992. Print. 3.
  • 18. Astra 18 order the Catholic Monarchs into letting him have this title (even though they did renegade on these stipulations after the voyage). His actions and voice are still seen in contracts and documents he did not even write. Conclusions After all of this, what are we left with? One of the most prevalent issues with Columbuss Nachlass is that it is found within the works of others so we do not know how much of it retains Columbuss original voice. From the analysis of Las Casas and Columbus, we can see that there are many grammatical, descriptive, and lingual markers that Las Casas left in his transcription of the Journal that would only have come from Columbus. When we look at the Columbus Letter, we are shown the Admirals own words and voice. This gave us a valid comparison between the Journal and the Letter. With the analysis of the Capitulations of Santa Fe, we are shown exactly what Columbus valued (which is also expressed by the Journal) and how demanding he was, even to the Catholic Monarchs. Finally, through all of these analyses, it can be said that Las Casass abridgment contains much of Columbuss voice and, especially comparing the sections where Las Casas transcribed Columbuss own words with the Columbus Letter, it is evident that Las Casas was faithful in his version of the Admirals Journal of theFirst Voyage. In light of this information and as shown with the additional documents about Columbus, if we as an audience listen carefully, we can hear the voice of the Admiral in the Journal as well.
  • 19. Astra 19 Bibliography Bartosik-Velez, Elise. The First Interpretations of the Columbian Enterprise. Revista Canadiense De Estudios Hispanicos 33.2 (2009): 317-334. Print. B.W. Ife, Christopher Columbus, and Ralph J. Penny. Journal of the First Voyage, 1492 = Diario Del Primer Viaje, 1492. Warminster, England: Aris & Phillips, 1990. Print. Cohen, J.M. The Four Voyages of Christopher Columbus; Being His Own Log-book, Letters, and Dispatches with Connecting Narrative Drawn from the Life of the Admiral by His Son Hernando Colon and Other Contemporary Historians. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969. Print. Jane, Cecil and Christopher Columbus. The Journal of Christopher Columbus. London: Anthony Blond & The Orion, 1960. Print. Columbus, Fernando. The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus By His Son Ferdinand. Trans. Benjamin Keen. London: Folio Society, 1959. Print. Dunn, O.C., James E. Kelley, Christopher Columbus, and Bartolom辿 De Las Casas. The Diario of Christopher Columbuss First Voyage to America, 1492-1493. Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1989. Print. Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe. Columbus and the Conquest of the Impossible. London: Phoenix, 2000. Print. Flint, Valerie I. J. The Imaginative Landscape of Christopher Columbus. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1992. Print. Henige, David P. In Search of Columbus: The Sources for the First Voyage. Tucson: University of Arizona, 1991. Print. Irizarry, Estelle. "The Two Authors of Columbus' 'Diary'" Computers and Humanities 27.2 (1993): 85-92. Print. Keeley, Graham. Columbus Exposed as Iron-Fisted Tyrant Who Tortured His Slaves. The Independent. Independent Digital News and Media, 21 July 2006. Web. 24 March 2015. Nachlass. Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press, 12 February 2015. Web. 31 March 2015. Nader, Helen. Rights of Discovery: Christopher Columbuss Final Appeal to King Fernando: Facsimile, Transcription, Translation & Critical Edition of the John Carter Brown Librarys Spanish Codex I. Cali, Colombia: Carvajal, 1992. Print. Nader, Helen and Christopher Columbus. The Book of Privileges Issued to Christopher Columbus by King Fernando and Queen Isabel, 1492-1502. Berkeley: University of California, 1996. Print.
  • 20. Astra 20 Williams, Jerry M., and Robert Earl Lewis. Early Images of the Americas: Transfer and Invention. Tucson: University of Arizona, 1993. Print.

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