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Introduction to management 3.0

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Renato Brazioli
Renato Brazioli

A gentle introduction to the concepts of Management 3.0. Originally presented at Torino Agile Community's MeetUp on June 20, 2018.

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Management 3.0 Change and Innovation Practices Renato Brazioli me@renatobrazioli.it
Jurgen Appelo and Happy Melly elo o.com 2010 2013 2016 All images have an hyperlink associated
The Agile Landscape, and beyond Many others omitted, either by forgetfulness or by choice Mike Cohn. Succeeding with Agile: ? Software Development using Scrum, 2010 Scrum David Anderson. Kanban: Successful Evolutionary Change in Your Software Business, 2010 Kanban Eric Ries, The Lean Startup: How Today's Entrepreneurs Use Continuous Innovation¡­, 2011 learn ideas build product measure data Lean Startup Viability Desirability Feasibility Design Thinking
Reasons for Adopting & Scaling Agile AGILE SUCCESS AND METRICS Challenges Experienced Adopting & Scaling Agile While the vast majority of respondents and their organizations have realized success from adopting agile practices, they recognize that there are challenges to scaling agile. The top two challenges cited were organizational culture at odds with agile values (63%), and lack of skills or experience with agile methods (47%). Company philosophy or culture at odds with core agile values Lack of experience with agile methods Lack of management support General organization resistance to change Lack of business/customer/product owner Insufficient training Pervasiveness of traditional development Inconsistent agile practices and process Fragmented tooling, data, and measurements Ineffective collaboration Regulatory compliance and governance Don¡¯t know 63% 47% 45% 43% 41% 34% 34% 31% 20% 19% 15% 2% *Respondents were able to make multiple selections. 98% of respondents said that their organization has realized success from agile projects. Success of Agile Projects COMPANY EXPERIENCE AND ADOPTION Reasons for Adopting Agile Improving project visibility (4 up three places to become th popular reason stated for ad this year and accelerating pr increased from 62% last year year. *Respondents were able to make selections. 69% 61% 53% 43% 43% 37% 30% 21% 20% 18% 18% Accelerate product delivery Enhance ability to manage changing priorities Increase productivity Improve project visibility Enhance software quality Improve business/IT alignment Reduce project risk Improve team morale Enhance delivery predictability Improve engineering discipline Better manage distributed teams Reduce project cost Increase software maintainability 42% 31%
Benefits Experienced Adopting & Scaling Agile Benefits of Adopting Agile Ability to manage changing priorities Project visibility Increased team productivity Delivery speed/time to market Team morale Business/IT alignment Software quality Project predictability Project risk reduction Engineering discipline Software maintainability Managing distributed teams Project cost reduction 88% 83% 83% 81% 81% 76% 75% 75% 74% 68% 64% 61% 56% AGILE SUCCESS AND METRICS Challenges Experienced Adopting & Scaling Agile While the vast majority of respondents and their organizations have realized success from adopting agile practices, they recognize that there are challenges to scaling agile. The top two challenges cited were organizational culture at odds with agile values (63%), and lack of skills or experience with agile methods (47%). Company philosophy or culture at odds with core agile values Lack of experience with agile methods Lack of management support General organization resistance to change Lack of business/customer/product owner Insufficient training Pervasiveness of traditional development Inconsistent agile practices and process Fragmented tooling, data, and measurements Ineffective collaboration Regulatory compliance and governance Don¡¯t know 63% 47% 45% 43% 41% 34% 34% 31% 20% 19% 15% 2% *Respondents were able to make multiple selections. 98% of respondents said that their organization has realized success from agile projects. Success of Agile Projects
Challenges Experienced Adopting & Scaling Agile Challenges Experienced Adopting & Scaling Agile While the vast majority of respondents and their organizations have realized success from adopting agile practices, they recognize that there are challenges to scaling agile. The top two challenges cited were organizational culture at odds with agile values (63%), and lack of skills or experience with agile methods (47%). Company philosophy or culture at odds with core agile values Lack of experience with agile methods Lack of management support General organization resistance to change Lack of business/customer/product owner Insufficient training Pervasiveness of traditional development Inconsistent agile practices and process Fragmented tooling, data, and measurements Ineffective collaboration Regulatory compliance and governance Don¡¯t know 63% 47% 45% 43% 41% 34% 34% 31% 20% 19% 15% 2% *Respondents were able to make multiple selections. success from agile projects. AGILE SUCCESS AND METRICS Challenges Experienced Adopting & Scaling Agile While the vast majority of respondents and their organizations have realized success from adopting agile practices, they recognize that there are challenges to scaling agile. The top two challenges cited were organizational culture at odds with agile values (63%), and lack of skills or experience with agile methods (47%). Company philosophy or culture at odds with core agile values Lack of experience with agile methods Lack of management support General organization resistance to change Lack of business/customer/product owner Insufficient training Pervasiveness of traditional development Inconsistent agile practices and process Fragmented tooling, data, and measurements Ineffective collaboration Regulatory compliance and governance Don¡¯t know 63% 47% 45% 43% 41% 34% 34% 31% 20% 19% 15% 2% *Respondents were able to make multiple selections. 98% of respondents said that their organization has realized success from agile projects. Success of Agile Projects There are still challenges to scaling agile. The top four challenges cited were organisational culture at odds with agile values (63%), lack of skills or experience with agile methods (47%). lack of management support (45%) and general organisation resistance to change (41%)
Leadership & Management Management is about human beings. Its task is to make people capable of joint performance, to make their strengths effective and their weaknesses irrelevant. (¡­) This is what organisations is all about, and it is the reason that management is the critical, determining factor. Peter F. Drucker
OK, we know what to do! ?By NASA [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons Every corpse on Everest was once an extremely motivated person, highly engaged with inspired leaders
Complex Adaptive System (CAS) An organization is a complex adaptive system (CAS), because it consists of parts (people) that form a system (organization), which shows complex behavior while it keeps adapting to a ? changing environment
Complexity Thinking
Management 1.0 It was engineers who developed scientific management, the command-and-control style of leadership that was quite successful in the 20th century. In this style of management, a common practice is that they are managed like machines. Leaders assume that improvement of the whole requires monitoring, repairing, and replacing the parts. Engineers developed most management frameworks with upfront design, top-down planning and command-and-control structures and processes. Frameworks work well with predictable, repeatable tasks (by machines). They don¡¯t work with creativity, innovation and problem-solving (by humans).
Management 2.0 In a Management 2.0 organization, everyone recognizes that ¡°people are the most valuable assets¡± and that managers have to become ¡°servant leaders¡±. But, at the same time, managers prefer to stick to the hierarchy. How to deal with middle/senior managers and colleagues in staff functions is in all likelihood the most challenging issue you will face in a transformation.
Management 3.0 Some people think of an organization as a community or a city. You can do what you want, as long as you allow the community to benefit from your work. We call that Management 3.0. Management of the work is a crucial activity, but this could be done with or without dedicated managers. In fact, a business can do a lot of management with almost no managers! Most creative workers don¡¯t realize that they are also responsible for management stuff. Management is too important to leave to the managers.
Management 3.0 is a Mindset It is a mindset, combined with an ever-changing collection of games, tools, and practices to help any worker to manage the organization. It is a?way of looking at work systems. Management 3.0 is not yet another framework.
Hello Martie! Management & ? Leadership Complexity Thinking
A model with Six Views Energize People Empower Teams Align Constraints Develop Competence Grow Structure Improve Everything
Energize People People are the most important parts of an organization and managers must do all they can to keep people active, creative, and motivated
Engagement and Motivation Business leaders and human resource managers consider the ¡°lack of employee engagement¡± one of their top priorities. But why do many workers not feel engaged? Technically, we cannot make people feel motivated or engaged. But we can certainly set up the right conditions that maximize the probability that it will happen (even though success is never certain).
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Is employee engagement about intrinsic or extrinsic motivation? Does an author write books because she loves the writing process? Or because she loves the support and encouragement from readers? Maybe a bit of both?
CHAMPFROGS It consists of ten motivators that are either intrinsic, extrinsic, or a bit of both. The CHAMPFROGS model deals specifically with motivation in the context of work-life. ? Two-Factor Theory, Frederick Herzberg ? The Hierarchy of Needs, Abraham Maslow ? Theory of Self-Determination, Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan ? 16 Basic Desires Theory, Steven Reiss
Motivators Curiosity Honor Acceptance Mastery Power The workers have plenty of things to investigate and to think about Workers feel proud that their values are re?ected in how they work Colleagues approve of what people do and who they are The work challenges people¡¯s competence but it is within their abili=es There¡¯s enough room for workers to in?uence what happens around them Freedom Relatedness Order Goal Status People are independent of others with their work and responsibilities People have good social contacts with the others in their work Workers have enough rules and policies for a stable environment The people¡¯s purpose in life is reflected in the work that they do People have a good position and are recognized by their colleagues
Kudo Walls and Kudo Boxes Get people to offer each other tokens of appreciation, either by posting them in a box or putting them on a wall
Kudos THANK YOU! VERY HAPPY! MANY THANKS! WELL DONE! THANK YOU! VERY HAPPY! MANY THANKS! WELL DONE! THANK YOU! VERY HAPPY! MANY THANKS! WELL DONE! THANK YOU! VERY HAPPY! MANY THANKS! WELL DONE! GREAT JOB! TOTALLY AWESOME! CONGRATULATIONS! PROUD! GREAT JOB! TOTALLY AWESOME! CONGRATULATIONS PROUD! GREAT JOB! TOTALLY AWESOME! CONGRATULATIONS! PROUD! GREAT JOB! TOTALLY AWESOME! CONGRATULATIONS! PROUD!
Empower Teams Teams can self-organize, and this requires empowerment, authorization, and trust from management
Empowerment Empowerment defined empower /?m?pou(?)r/ 1. (authority) to give official authority or legal power to (by legal or official means) / to invest with power 2. (ability) to promote the self-actualization or influence of / to supply with an ability
Delegate at the proper level designed by Vectorpouch - Delegation levels are applied to key decision areas. The ¡°right¡± level of delegation is a balancing act. It depends on a team¡¯s maturity level and the impact of its decisions. Delegation is context-dependent.
Seven Levels of Delegation The 7 Levels of Delegation is a symmetrical model. It works in both directions.
Delegation Board DelegateInquireAdviseAgreeConsultSellTell
Align Constraints Self-organization can lead to anything, and it¡¯s therefore necessary to protect people and shared resources and to give people a clear purpose and defined goals.
People over Process The ¡°people over process¡± paradigm is great, until you find out that your team consists of two trolls, a parrot, and a hairdresser, and a relatively bright project manager, who happens to be deaf, blind, and mute
Establishing (Flexible) Constraints Cross that line, you little bastard, and you¡¯re dead! https://youtu.be/Miwb92eZaJg
Leadership & Management Culture eats Strategy for breakfast! Peter F. Drucker
Values, Behaviour and Culture The culture of any organization is shaped by the worst behavior the leader is willing to tolerate. - Gruenter and Whitaker, School Culture Rewired Maybe better¡­ The culture of any organization is shaped by the best behavior the leader is willing to amplify. Create boundaries! Discourage the bad behaviors Encourage the good ones
Reiventing Organisations
Develop Competence Teams cannot achieve their goals if team members aren¡¯t capable enough, and managers must therefore contribute to the development of competence
Competence The ability to do something well. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/competence The ability to do something successfully or efficiently. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/competence Acluster of related abilities, commitments, knowledge, and skills that enable a person (or an organization) to act effectively in a job or situation. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/competence.html#ixzz4DSPEy6hA
Individual competence Helping each other Team communication Creative tension Team competence ? structure
Competency Levels Apprentice Journeyman Master
Generalized Specialists Master Journeyman Journeyman
Lead by example Encourage and enable self-study Training and certification Coaching Learning from failure/ experiments How do we develop (new) competences?
Grow Structure Many teams operate within the context of a complex organization, and thus it is important to consider structures that enhance communication.
Conway¡¯s Law
Organizations as cities An organization should operate like a city. Some parts emerge bottom-up while others are designed top-down. The art of management is finding the right balance between these two approaches.
Find Balance Hierarchies Specialization Efficiency Centralization Exploitation Networks Generalization Effectivity Decentralization Exploration
Common Patterns T-Skilled People Value Units Small Teams Semi-stable Teams Replace Job Titles Communities of PracticeOpen Allocation Ambassadors Local Rules
Improve Everything People, teams, and organizations need to improve continuously to defer failure for as long as possible.
THANK YOU

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Introduction to management 3.0

  • 1. Management 3.0 Change and Innovation Practices Renato Brazioli me@renatobrazioli.it
  • 2. Jurgen Appelo and Happy Melly elo o.com 2010 2013 2016 All images have an hyperlink associated
  • 3. The Agile Landscape, and beyond Many others omitted, either by forgetfulness or by choice Mike Cohn. Succeeding with Agile: ? Software Development using Scrum, 2010 Scrum David Anderson. Kanban: Successful Evolutionary Change in Your Software Business, 2010 Kanban Eric Ries, The Lean Startup: How Today's Entrepreneurs Use Continuous Innovation¡­, 2011 learn ideas build product measure data Lean Startup Viability Desirability Feasibility Design Thinking
  • 4. Reasons for Adopting & Scaling Agile AGILE SUCCESS AND METRICS Challenges Experienced Adopting & Scaling Agile While the vast majority of respondents and their organizations have realized success from adopting agile practices, they recognize that there are challenges to scaling agile. The top two challenges cited were organizational culture at odds with agile values (63%), and lack of skills or experience with agile methods (47%). Company philosophy or culture at odds with core agile values Lack of experience with agile methods Lack of management support General organization resistance to change Lack of business/customer/product owner Insufficient training Pervasiveness of traditional development Inconsistent agile practices and process Fragmented tooling, data, and measurements Ineffective collaboration Regulatory compliance and governance Don¡¯t know 63% 47% 45% 43% 41% 34% 34% 31% 20% 19% 15% 2% *Respondents were able to make multiple selections. 98% of respondents said that their organization has realized success from agile projects. Success of Agile Projects COMPANY EXPERIENCE AND ADOPTION Reasons for Adopting Agile Improving project visibility (4 up three places to become th popular reason stated for ad this year and accelerating pr increased from 62% last year year. *Respondents were able to make selections. 69% 61% 53% 43% 43% 37% 30% 21% 20% 18% 18% Accelerate product delivery Enhance ability to manage changing priorities Increase productivity Improve project visibility Enhance software quality Improve business/IT alignment Reduce project risk Improve team morale Enhance delivery predictability Improve engineering discipline Better manage distributed teams Reduce project cost Increase software maintainability 42% 31%
  • 5. Benefits Experienced Adopting & Scaling Agile Benefits of Adopting Agile Ability to manage changing priorities Project visibility Increased team productivity Delivery speed/time to market Team morale Business/IT alignment Software quality Project predictability Project risk reduction Engineering discipline Software maintainability Managing distributed teams Project cost reduction 88% 83% 83% 81% 81% 76% 75% 75% 74% 68% 64% 61% 56% AGILE SUCCESS AND METRICS Challenges Experienced Adopting & Scaling Agile While the vast majority of respondents and their organizations have realized success from adopting agile practices, they recognize that there are challenges to scaling agile. The top two challenges cited were organizational culture at odds with agile values (63%), and lack of skills or experience with agile methods (47%). Company philosophy or culture at odds with core agile values Lack of experience with agile methods Lack of management support General organization resistance to change Lack of business/customer/product owner Insufficient training Pervasiveness of traditional development Inconsistent agile practices and process Fragmented tooling, data, and measurements Ineffective collaboration Regulatory compliance and governance Don¡¯t know 63% 47% 45% 43% 41% 34% 34% 31% 20% 19% 15% 2% *Respondents were able to make multiple selections. 98% of respondents said that their organization has realized success from agile projects. Success of Agile Projects
  • 6. Challenges Experienced Adopting & Scaling Agile Challenges Experienced Adopting & Scaling Agile While the vast majority of respondents and their organizations have realized success from adopting agile practices, they recognize that there are challenges to scaling agile. The top two challenges cited were organizational culture at odds with agile values (63%), and lack of skills or experience with agile methods (47%). Company philosophy or culture at odds with core agile values Lack of experience with agile methods Lack of management support General organization resistance to change Lack of business/customer/product owner Insufficient training Pervasiveness of traditional development Inconsistent agile practices and process Fragmented tooling, data, and measurements Ineffective collaboration Regulatory compliance and governance Don¡¯t know 63% 47% 45% 43% 41% 34% 34% 31% 20% 19% 15% 2% *Respondents were able to make multiple selections. success from agile projects. AGILE SUCCESS AND METRICS Challenges Experienced Adopting & Scaling Agile While the vast majority of respondents and their organizations have realized success from adopting agile practices, they recognize that there are challenges to scaling agile. The top two challenges cited were organizational culture at odds with agile values (63%), and lack of skills or experience with agile methods (47%). Company philosophy or culture at odds with core agile values Lack of experience with agile methods Lack of management support General organization resistance to change Lack of business/customer/product owner Insufficient training Pervasiveness of traditional development Inconsistent agile practices and process Fragmented tooling, data, and measurements Ineffective collaboration Regulatory compliance and governance Don¡¯t know 63% 47% 45% 43% 41% 34% 34% 31% 20% 19% 15% 2% *Respondents were able to make multiple selections. 98% of respondents said that their organization has realized success from agile projects. Success of Agile Projects There are still challenges to scaling agile. The top four challenges cited were organisational culture at odds with agile values (63%), lack of skills or experience with agile methods (47%). lack of management support (45%) and general organisation resistance to change (41%)
  • 7. Leadership & Management Management is about human beings. Its task is to make people capable of joint performance, to make their strengths effective and their weaknesses irrelevant. (¡­) This is what organisations is all about, and it is the reason that management is the critical, determining factor. Peter F. Drucker
  • 8. OK, we know what to do! ?By NASA [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons Every corpse on Everest was once an extremely motivated person, highly engaged with inspired leaders
  • 9. Complex Adaptive System (CAS) An organization is a complex adaptive system (CAS), because it consists of parts (people) that form a system (organization), which shows complex behavior while it keeps adapting to a ? changing environment
  • 11. Management 1.0 It was engineers who developed scientific management, the command-and-control style of leadership that was quite successful in the 20th century. In this style of management, a common practice is that they are managed like machines. Leaders assume that improvement of the whole requires monitoring, repairing, and replacing the parts. Engineers developed most management frameworks with upfront design, top-down planning and command-and-control structures and processes. Frameworks work well with predictable, repeatable tasks (by machines). They don¡¯t work with creativity, innovation and problem-solving (by humans).
  • 12. Management 2.0 In a Management 2.0 organization, everyone recognizes that ¡°people are the most valuable assets¡± and that managers have to become ¡°servant leaders¡±. But, at the same time, managers prefer to stick to the hierarchy. How to deal with middle/senior managers and colleagues in staff functions is in all likelihood the most challenging issue you will face in a transformation.
  • 13. Management 3.0 Some people think of an organization as a community or a city. You can do what you want, as long as you allow the community to benefit from your work. We call that Management 3.0. Management of the work is a crucial activity, but this could be done with or without dedicated managers. In fact, a business can do a lot of management with almost no managers! Most creative workers don¡¯t realize that they are also responsible for management stuff. Management is too important to leave to the managers.
  • 14. Management 3.0 is a Mindset It is a mindset, combined with an ever-changing collection of games, tools, and practices to help any worker to manage the organization. It is a?way of looking at work systems. Management 3.0 is not yet another framework.
  • 15. Hello Martie! Management & ? Leadership Complexity Thinking
  • 16. A model with Six Views Energize People Empower Teams Align Constraints Develop Competence Grow Structure Improve Everything
  • 17. Energize People People are the most important parts of an organization and managers must do all they can to keep people active, creative, and motivated
  • 18. Engagement and Motivation Business leaders and human resource managers consider the ¡°lack of employee engagement¡± one of their top priorities. But why do many workers not feel engaged? Technically, we cannot make people feel motivated or engaged. But we can certainly set up the right conditions that maximize the probability that it will happen (even though success is never certain).
  • 19. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Is employee engagement about intrinsic or extrinsic motivation? Does an author write books because she loves the writing process? Or because she loves the support and encouragement from readers? Maybe a bit of both?
  • 20. CHAMPFROGS It consists of ten motivators that are either intrinsic, extrinsic, or a bit of both. The CHAMPFROGS model deals specifically with motivation in the context of work-life. ? Two-Factor Theory, Frederick Herzberg ? The Hierarchy of Needs, Abraham Maslow ? Theory of Self-Determination, Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan ? 16 Basic Desires Theory, Steven Reiss
  • 21. Motivators Curiosity Honor Acceptance Mastery Power The workers have plenty of things to investigate and to think about Workers feel proud that their values are re?ected in how they work Colleagues approve of what people do and who they are The work challenges people¡¯s competence but it is within their abili=es There¡¯s enough room for workers to in?uence what happens around them Freedom Relatedness Order Goal Status People are independent of others with their work and responsibilities People have good social contacts with the others in their work Workers have enough rules and policies for a stable environment The people¡¯s purpose in life is reflected in the work that they do People have a good position and are recognized by their colleagues
  • 22. Kudo Walls and Kudo Boxes Get people to offer each other tokens of appreciation, either by posting them in a box or putting them on a wall
  • 23. Kudos THANK YOU! VERY HAPPY! MANY THANKS! WELL DONE! THANK YOU! VERY HAPPY! MANY THANKS! WELL DONE! THANK YOU! VERY HAPPY! MANY THANKS! WELL DONE! THANK YOU! VERY HAPPY! MANY THANKS! WELL DONE! GREAT JOB! TOTALLY AWESOME! CONGRATULATIONS! PROUD! GREAT JOB! TOTALLY AWESOME! CONGRATULATIONS PROUD! GREAT JOB! TOTALLY AWESOME! CONGRATULATIONS! PROUD! GREAT JOB! TOTALLY AWESOME! CONGRATULATIONS! PROUD!
  • 24. Empower Teams Teams can self-organize, and this requires empowerment, authorization, and trust from management
  • 25. Empowerment Empowerment defined empower /?m?pou(?)r/ 1. (authority) to give official authority or legal power to (by legal or official means) / to invest with power 2. (ability) to promote the self-actualization or influence of / to supply with an ability
  • 26. Delegate at the proper level designed by Vectorpouch - Delegation levels are applied to key decision areas. The ¡°right¡± level of delegation is a balancing act. It depends on a team¡¯s maturity level and the impact of its decisions. Delegation is context-dependent.
  • 27. Seven Levels of Delegation The 7 Levels of Delegation is a symmetrical model. It works in both directions.
  • 29. Align Constraints Self-organization can lead to anything, and it¡¯s therefore necessary to protect people and shared resources and to give people a clear purpose and defined goals.
  • 30. People over Process The ¡°people over process¡± paradigm is great, until you find out that your team consists of two trolls, a parrot, and a hairdresser, and a relatively bright project manager, who happens to be deaf, blind, and mute
  • 31. Establishing (Flexible) Constraints Cross that line, you little bastard, and you¡¯re dead! https://youtu.be/Miwb92eZaJg
  • 32. Leadership & Management Culture eats Strategy for breakfast! Peter F. Drucker
  • 33. Values, Behaviour and Culture The culture of any organization is shaped by the worst behavior the leader is willing to tolerate. - Gruenter and Whitaker, School Culture Rewired Maybe better¡­ The culture of any organization is shaped by the best behavior the leader is willing to amplify. Create boundaries! Discourage the bad behaviors Encourage the good ones
  • 35. Develop Competence Teams cannot achieve their goals if team members aren¡¯t capable enough, and managers must therefore contribute to the development of competence
  • 36. Competence The ability to do something well. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/competence The ability to do something successfully or efficiently. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/competence Acluster of related abilities, commitments, knowledge, and skills that enable a person (or an organization) to act effectively in a job or situation. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/competence.html#ixzz4DSPEy6hA
  • 40. Lead by example Encourage and enable self-study Training and certification Coaching Learning from failure/ experiments How do we develop (new) competences?
  • 41. Grow Structure Many teams operate within the context of a complex organization, and thus it is important to consider structures that enhance communication.
  • 43. Organizations as cities An organization should operate like a city. Some parts emerge bottom-up while others are designed top-down. The art of management is finding the right balance between these two approaches.
  • 45. Common Patterns T-Skilled People Value Units Small Teams Semi-stable Teams Replace Job Titles Communities of PracticeOpen Allocation Ambassadors Local Rules
  • 46. Improve Everything People, teams, and organizations need to improve continuously to defer failure for as long as possible.