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Network Performance Measures
? Two Performance Measures
– Quantity of Service (Throughput)
? How much data travels across the net?
? How long does it take to transfer long files?
– Quality of Service (Average packet delay)
? How long does it take for a packet to arrive at its
destination?
? How responsive is the system to user commands?
? Can the network support real-time delivery such as
audio and video?

Fairness versus Optimality
? Quantity of service versus
quality of service.
? To optimize throughput,
saturate paths between A
and A’, B and B’, and C
and C’, but what happens
to the response time from
X to X’?

Types of Routing Algorithms
? Nonadaptive (static)
– Do not use measurements of current conditions
– Static routes are downloaded at boot time
? Adaptive Algorithms
– Change routes dynamically
? Gather information at runtime
– locally
– from adjacent routers
– from all other routers
? Change routes
– Every delta T seconds
– When load changes
– When topology changes

Optimality principle
? If router j is on the optimal path from i to k,
then the optimal path from j to k also falls
along the same route.
i
k
(j)
(j)
(j)

Sink Trees
? The set of optimal
routes to a particular
node forms a sink tree.
? Sink trees are not
necessarily unique
? Goal of all routing
algorithms
– Discover sink trees for
all destinations

? Given a network topology and a set of
weights describing the cost to send data
across each link in the network
? Find the shortest path from a specified
source to all other destinations in the
network.
? Shortest path algorithm first developed by
E. W. Dijkstra
Shortest Path Routing
(a nonadaptive routing algorithm)

Shortest Path Routing
Mark the source node as permanent.
Designate the source node as the working node.
Set the tentative distance to all other nodes to infinity.
While some nodes are not marked permanent
Compute the tentative distance from the source to all nodes
adjacent to the working node. If this is shorter than the
current tentative distance replace the tentative distance of the
destination and record the label of the working node there.
Examine ALL tentatively labeled nodes in the graph. Select
the node with the smallest value and make it the new working
node. Designate the node permanent.

Example of Shortest Path Routing

Why the Shortest Path Algorithm Works
? Perhaps A*ZE is a better path to E than ABE
? nodes are made permanent when paths to them are the shortest paths in the
graph
? All subsequent paths found to permanent nodes will be at least as long as
previously found paths
? Two cases
1.) If Z is permanent, then we have already checked A*ZE
2.) If Z is tentatively labeled, paths to Z must be longer than paths to E,
otherwise Z would have been made permanent
A
B
E
Z

? Brute force routing
– Every incoming packet is sent on every outgoing line
– Always finds the shortest path quickly
– Also finds many long paths
– Time to live is set to size of subnet
? Selective Flooding
– Flood only in the direction of the destination
? Practical in a few settings
– Military Applications
– Distributed Databases
– Metric for comparison
Flooding

? Bellman-Ford Routing
? Ford Fulkerson Algorithm
? Original ARPANET routing algorithm
? Previously used on Internet (RIP)
? Early version of DecNet and Novell’s IPX
? AppleTalk and Cisco routers use improved
versions of this algorithm
Distance Vector Routing
(an adaptive routing algorithm)

? Neighboring routers periodically exchange
information from their routing tables.
? Routers replace routes in their own routing
tables anytime that neighbors have found
better routes.
? Information provided from neighbors
– Outgoing line used for destination
– Estimate of time or distance
? can be number of hops, time delay, packet queue
length, etc.

The Split Horizon Hack
? Actual distance to a
destination is not
reported on the line on
which packets to that
destination are sent.
? Instead these distances
are reported as
“infinity.”
B
D
A
C C tells D the truth
about its distance to
A, but lies to B and
says the distance is
infinity.

A topology where split horizon
fails
Suppose that D becomes
unreachable from C.
A and B are reporting
infinite distances to C, but
they are reporting distances
of length 2 to each other.
A and B will count to infinity.

? Five Steps
1.) Discover your neighbors and learn their
addresses.
2.) Measure the cost (delay) to each neighbor.
3.) Construct a packet containing all this
information
4.) Send this packet to all other routers.
5.) Compute the shortest path to every other
router.
Link State Routing

1.) Discovering Your Neighbors
? Send “Hello” packet on each point-to-point
line. Destination node replies with its
address.

2.) Measuring Line Cost
? Send an “ECHO” packet over the line.
? Destination is required to respond to
“ECHO” packet immediately.
? Measure the time required for this
operation.
? Question: Should we measure just the time
it takes to transmit the packet, or should we
include the time that the packet waits in the
queue?

Argument 2:
? We should include the time that the packet
spends in the queue, as this provides a more
accurate picture of the real delays.
? We should only include the transmission
times, otherwise the network is likely to
oscillate between preferred paths.

Oscillating Paths
F
H
L
E
A
B
C
D
G
I
J
K
Consider the situation
where all nodes are
sending to destination
A.
Each node must
determine to either
route clockwise
or counter clockwise.
The cost of routing
clockwise is the
number of other
nodes routing
clockwise.

Distributing the Link State
Packets
? Use selective flooding
? Sequence numbers prevent duplicate
packets from being propagated
? Lower sequence numbers are rejected as
obsolete

Computing the New Routes
? Dijkstra’s Shortest Path algorithm is used to
determine the shortest path to each
destination.

Hierarchical Routing
? Addresses the growth of routing tables
? Routers are divided into regions
? Routers know the routes for their own
regions only
? Works like telephone routing
? Possible hierarchy
– city, state, country, continent
? Optimal number of levels for an N router
subnet is lnN

Routing Mobile Hosts
? Networking portable computers
? Tanenbaum’s proposed solution
– All mobile agents are assumed to have a
permanent home location
– When a portable computer is attached to a
remote network it contacts a process that acts as
the local foreign agent.
– Each home location has a process that acts as
the home agent

Registering a Mobile Agent
? Periodically the foreign agent broadcasts its
address
? The mobile agent registers with the foreign
agent and supplies its home address
? The foreign agent contacts the mobile
agent’s home agent reporting the mobile
agent’s location.
– Security must be used to verify the identity of
the mobile agent.
? The foreign agent registers the mobile agent

Routing Packets to a Mobile Agent
? Packets sent to the mobile agent are routed
to the users home network
? The home agent routes the packets to the
foreign agent
? The home agent provides the source of
incoming packets with the remote address
of the mobile agent

Broadcast Routing
? Send a separate packet to each destination
? Use flooding
? Use multidestination routing
– Each packet contains a list of destinations
– Routers duplicate packet for all matching
outgoing lines
? Use spanning tree routing
– a subset of the subnet that includes all routers
but contains no loops.

Spanning Tree Broadcasting
? Uses the minimum
number of packets
necessary
? Routers must be able
to compute spanning
tree
– Available with link
state routing
– Not available with
distance vector routing

Broadcast Routing (continued)
? Reverse Path Forwarding
– Use When knowledge of a spanning tree is not
available
– Provides an approximation of spanning tree
routing
– Routers check to see if incoming packet arrives
from the same line that the router uses to route
outgoing packets to the broadcast source
? If so, the router duplicates the packet on all other
outgoing lines
? Otherwise, the router discards the packet

Reverse Path Forwarding Example
This router routes
packets bound for
128.173.41.41 to
via line A. A B
C
D
E
Any broadcast from
128.173.41.41 that
arrives from line A
is broadcast on lines
B, C, D, and E
Any broadcast from
128.173.41.41 that
arrives from line B,
C, D, or E is discarded

Multicast Routing
? A method to broadcast packets to well-
defined groups
? Hosts can join multicast groups.
– They inform their routers
– Routers send group information throughout the
subnet
? Each router computes a spanning tree for
each group. The spanning tree includes all
the routers needed to broadcast data to the
group

Spanning Trees for Multicast Routing

Multicast Routing (continued)
? With Link State Routing the routers are
aware of network topology and the
spanning tree can be computed
? With Distance Vector Routing reverse path
forwarding is used.
– When a router receives a packet for a multicast
group for which it has no subscribers (hosts or
other routers), the router sends a PRUNE
message to the source router.

Congestion Control Algorithms
? Congestion - the situation in which too
many packets are present in the subnet.

Causes of Congestion
? Congestion occurs when a router receives
data faster than it can send it
– Insufficient bandwidth
– Slow hosts
– Data simultaneously arriving from multiple
lines destined for the same outgoing line.
? The system is not balanced
– Correcting the problem at one router will
probably just move the bottleneck to another
router.

Congestion Causes More Congestion
– Incoming messages must be placed in queues
? The queues have a finite size
– Overflowing queues will cause packets to be dropped
– Long queue delays will cause packets to be resent
– Dropped packets will cause packets to be resent
? Senders that are trying to transmit to a congested
destination also become congested
– They must continually resend packets that have been
dropped or that have timed-out
– They must continue to hold outgoing/unacknowledged
messages in memory.

Congestion Control versus Flow Control
? Flow control
– controls point-to-point traffic between sender
and receiver
– e.g., a fast host sending to a slow host
? Congestion Control
– controls the traffic throughout the network

Two Categories of Congestion Control
? Open loop solutions
– Attempt to prevent problems rather than correct
them
– Does not utilize runtime feedback from the
system
? Closed loop solutions
– Uses feedback (measurements of system
performance) to make corrections at runtime.

General Principles of Closed Loop
Congestion Control
? Monitor the system to detect when and
where congestion occurs.
? Pass this information to places where action
can be taken.
? Adjust the system operation to correct the
problem.

Metrics Used in Closed Loop Congestion
Control
? Percentage of packets discarded due to
buffer overflow
? Average queue length
? Percentage of packets that time-out
? Average packet delay
? Standard deviation of packet delay

Reducing Congestion
? Two Methods
– Increase resources
? Get additional bandwidth
– Use faster lines
– Obtain additional lines
– Utilize alternate pathways
– Utilize “spare” routers
– Decrease Traffic
? Send messages to senders telling them to slow down
? Deny service to some users
? Degrade service to some or all users
? Schedule usage to achieve better load balance

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