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? Research is the step by step process of
gathering information
? Reasons for doing research:
1) To generate new knowledge
2) To solve a problem
3) To test a theory
4) To be able to predict an event or outcome

Research
Historical Description Experimental
Quantitative
studies
Quantitative
Studies
Can be
divided into
Which require

Historical research-describes the past
Descriptive research- describes records, analyses
and interprets conditions that permanently exist.
Experimental research-focus on variable--- and
describes what happens when the variables are
carefully controlled or manipulated.

? usually takes the form of statistical or numerical
information.
? It can also be expressed in the form of a rate.
? It is believed that the analysis of statistical data can
indicate both cause and correlation.
? it is used in the Mainstream or conventional ideas
of research which are based on the scientific
method

? Study easily replicable
? Method saves time
? It is cost effective
? It collects standard data
? Validity is enhanced by the use of large
samples
? Data is more objective

? No indication about the respondents personal
state
? Unrepresentative samples can lead to
inaccurate and invalid data
? Generalization may not apply to all people in
all circumstances

? There are 4 types of quantitative research
methods:
1. Surveys
2. Questionnaire
3. Structured interviews
4. Official statistics

? usually large-scale research projects that
collect standardized data from a large cross-
section of the population.
? E.g. Government census.
? There are three (3) types of surveys:
? Descriptive - questions are close-ended and
allow the researcher to make correlations
about social phenomena.
?

? Attitude - asks mainly close-ended questions
that attempt to find out people’s feelings or
opinions: e.g. a party, political figure or
brand of food.
? Explanatory - seeks answers that require
more than a simple yes or no response. They
are given the opportunity to clarify their
feelings in greater depth

? Valid due to data collected from a large cross-
section of the population
? Data can be used to make generalizations
? Statistical technique can be used to analyze data,
thus time-saving
? An unbiased representative sample saves the
researcher the time of having to find all individuals
with relevant information.

? Invalid data if sample not representative

? A number of pre-set questions that can
contain open-ended and close-ended or a
combination of both type of questions.
? Steps to constructing a questionnaire:
1. Operationalize key terms and concepts
therefore breaking up terms into sub-
concepts.
2. Formulate questions based on each sub-
topic.
?
?

1) Easy to administer
2) They can reach a large number of people
even if they are geographically disperse
3) It saves time
4) It is not costly
5) Data can be easily tabulated, measured and
analyzed

1) What is gained in reliability may be lost in terms
of validity. e.g.
The wording may intentionally or not, mislead the
respondent
Researcher bias
Respondents may lie or treat the issues lightly
Respondents may forget
2) Postal questionnaires have a low rate of return
and may be filled out by someone other than the
intended respondent.

? Secondary source of data.
? The researcher relies upon other people to
collect data.

? Saves time as it is a readily available source of
data.
? Conclusions drawn are objective because of
lack of interaction.
? Generalizations can be made.
? Researcher can understand the nature of
social change by comparing statistics from
different times.
? Statistics could be used to gain a deeper
understanding of human relationships.

? Producers may be biased in collecting the data.
? The validity of some official reports (e.g. crime)
could be inaccurate because trivial crimes may not
be reported.
? Technological developments make it appear that
more crimes are taking place, therefore
comparisons from past to present would be
inaccurate.
? Due to the fact that it is secondary data, there is a
low level of reliability

? collects subjective data such as information about
people’s emotions, feelings and values.
? The researcher usually interacts directly with the
respondents (i.e. face-to-face) or by actually joining in
their everyday activities
?
? There are 4 forms of qualitative research:
? Unstructured interviews
? Participant observation
? Case studies
? Documents

? Face-to-face interaction process in which the
researcher tries to get as much useful
information as possible from a respondent or a
number of respondents
? It can take the form of a one-session interview or
a number of session
? The respondents’ trust must be gained and
factors such as social class, sex or ethnicity can
influence the level of trust gained

1. The validity of the data is enhanced by the
following:
? Researcher can detect lies or inconsistencies by
observing facial reactions and body language
? Misunderstanding can be clarified
? The researcher can understand the world from the
point of view of the interviewee
? Researcher can gain information that he never
thought about asking

2. It is a more practical research technique for
explaining specific issues, e.g. rape
2. Due to the small sample, it can be useful for
challenging or refuting already existing
ideas

1. Validity is reduced by the following:
? Observer effect
? Deliberate lies on the part of the interviewee
2. Time consuming
3. Large quantities of information can pose
problems for analysis
4. Some interviewees can have limited
knowledge of a particular topic
5. Not cost effective

? Is regarded as a scientific tool because the researcher
studies people in their natural environment by joining
their daily activities
? The researcher must remain as objective – non-
judgemental and not overly involved – as possible
? Researcher can be overt – letting the group members
know that they are being studied - or covert – choose to
keep his identity secret
? Unlike interviews, trust must be gained from the start

1. Validity is enhanced by the following:
?The researcher witnesses the group first hand
?Observer effect is minimized
?Questions can be asked to clarify events and actions
of the group
?Group’s subjective point of view can be understood
?Information can be used to formulate theories about
human behaviour
2. It is a practical method for studying deviant or
secret groups and activities, e.g. gangs,
homosexuality

1. Validity may be compromised by the
following:
?Covert observer may forget information
?Covert observer may provide his own interpretation
because asking questions may reveal his identity
?Overt observation may produce the ob server effect
?There is no standardized way to study human
behaviour
2. It is costly
3. It is time-consuming

? Contains information usually qualitative form
? There are 2 main types of documents – historical and
personal
? Personal documents include letters, diaries, biographies
and autobiographies
? Historical documents are usually information written by
people who lived during a particular era
? Documents are a secondary source of data

? Saves time and money
? Practical method of studying past events
? Provides insight in areas that otherwise one
may not have access to
? Information could be used to measure the
extent of social change

? Invalid because of producer bias
? Information may be difficult to read and may
contain missing pages
? Some documents may be difficult to access
? Information may be limited in scope or
outdated

Research
Process
Identify
Problem
1
Formulate
Research
Question
2
Literature
Review
3
Data
Collection
4
Data
Analysis
5
Interpretation
of Data
6
Conclusion
8
Discussion
of Findings
7

? This is a sentence in which you clearly state what you
wish to find out.
E.g.. What is the level of hurricane preparedness of a
sample of households in Windy village, Barbados?
Theme
The
Environment
Sub Theme
Natural
Disasters
Problem
Statement?

? A statement which suggests the possible answer to your
problem statement. It mentions a variable or the
relationship between 2 or more variables.
? A variable is a thing/concept that changes.
? E.g.
? 1. Windy Village, St Silas, Barbados is not prepared for
hurricanes.
? 2. The level of preparedness amongst households in Windy
Village, St Silas is affected by their experiences of hurricanes.

Identifies
Problem
One must be able to study the
problem. E.g. drug use
makes problem manageable
Narrow down problems or
issues
Impacts on human
development
Stage 1

Formulating
Research
Questions
Devise once main
question or point
Devise a set of sub-
questions or concerns
Focus on what the
researcher wants to be
informed about
Create a hypothesis that
can either be accepted or
rejected
Stage 2

Literature
Reviews
Research must be
related to problem being
researched
e.g. books, journals,
articles, newspapers
Read as much as
possible on topic
Find info to definition
point
Look at strategies and methods
of other researchers and
compare
Stage 3

Data
Collection
Choose sample
Questions must be
focused on what he/she
wants to know
Choose a strategy
relative to study
Design instruments that
will be reliable and valid
Method used must bias free
Stage 4

Data
Analysis
Organizes the data
collected for
presentation
Use thin marginal
questions, concerns or
concepts as a guide
This presentation is
guided by research
question or hypothesis
There must be at least 5
different ways of presentations
The most popular formats were
pie charts, bar and live graphs,
flow diagrams, maps,
photographs etc.
Stage 5

Interpretation
of Findings
Consider the implications
Stage 6
Describes patterns
and trends
averages, ranges.
States what the data
implies
Explains the
results and
include
contradictions
Accounts for all the
findings presented

Discussion
of findings
Compares your
findings with those
presented in the
Literature Review
in relation to the original
questions
Stage 7
Identifies similarities
and differences in the
pattern and trend of
the studies
Ensures all
research
questions
are answered

Conclusion
States the limitation
of research/
Methodology.
Suggest at least three (3)
recommendations that
should be practical
solutions which can be
easily implemented
Summarize your results
and restate their
educational value
Stage 8

Limitations
Convenience
Resources
Costs
Expertise
Time
Access

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