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RM_Chapter-3.pdf Research Methodology for Researchers
- 1. Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune, India neelam.dewangan.vf@sitpune.edu.in Dr. Neelam Dewangan Unit-3 Research Design Introduction to Research Methodology Visiting Faculty
- 2. Outline
- 4. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 4 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques What is a Research Problem ? Research: According to Powers, Meenaghan and Twoomey (1985:38), Potential research questions may occur to us on a regular basis, but the process of formulating them in a meaningful way is not at all an easy task. To define a problem correctly, a researcher must know: what a problem is? . 4
- 5. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 5 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques What is a Research Problem ? State the components of a research problem as under: an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem. some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have a problem. Must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the objective(s) one wishes to attain There must be at least two means available to a researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem. 5
- 6. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 6 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Sources of research problems Most research in the humanities revolves around four Ps: people; problems; programmes; phenomena.
- 7. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 7 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Considerations in selecting a research problem Interest Magnitude Measurement of concepts Level of expertise Relevance Availability of data Ethical issues
- 8. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 8 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Components of Research Problem State the components of a research problem as under: an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem. some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have a problem. Must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the objective(s) one wishes to attain There must be at least two means available to a researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem. 8
- 9. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 9 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Cont There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives. There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains. 9
- 10. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 10 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques SELECTING THE PROBLEM The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task is a difficult one, although it may not appear to be so. Avoidance of overdone subjects Controversial subject Too narrow or too vague (fuzzy) Should be familiar and feasible 10
- 11. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 11 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Cont Contact an expert or a professor in the University who is already engaged in research. Read articles published in current literature available on the subject and may think how the techniques and ideas discussed there in might be applied to the solution of other problems. Discuss with others what he has in mind concerning a problem. In this way he should make all possible efforts in selecting a problem. 11
- 12. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 12 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Cont The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the costs involved, the time factor Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research? Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford? Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must participate in research as subjects? The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study. This may not be necessary when the problem requires the conduct of a research closely similar to one that has already been done. But when the field of inquiry is relatively new and does not have available a set of well developed techniques, a brief feasibility study must always be undertaken. 12
- 13. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 13 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques TECHNIQUE IN DEFINING A PROBLEM statement of the problem in a general way understanding the nature of the problem surveying the available literature developing the ideas through discussions rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition 13
- 14. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 14 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques POINTS TO CONSIDER WHILE DEFINING A RESEARCH PROBLEM (a) Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined (b) Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be clearly stated (c) A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for the selection of the problem) (d) The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available (e) The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the research 14
- 15. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 15 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques AN EXAMPLE Let us suppose that a research problem in a broad general way is as follows: Why is productivity in Japan so much higher than in India? It has a number of ambiguities such as What sort of productivity is being referred to? With what industries the same is related? With what period of time the productivity is being talked about? In view of all such ambiguities the given statement or the question is much too general to be amenable to analysis. 15
- 16. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 16 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Cont Rethinking and discussions about the problem may result in narrowing down the question to: Example What factors were responsible for the higher labour productivity of Japans manufacturing industries during the decade 1971 to 1980 relative to Indias manufacturing industries? Further rethinking and rephrasing might place the problem on a still better operational basis as shown below: To what extent did labour productivity in 1971 to 1980 in Japan exceed that of India in respect of 15 selected manufacturing industries? What factors were responsible for the productivity differentials between the two countries by industries? 16
- 17. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 17 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Cont With this sort of formulation, the various terms involved such as labour productivity, productivity differentials, etc. must be explained clearly. The researcher must also see that the necessary data are available. In case the data for one or more industries selected are not available for the concerning time-period, then the said industry or industries will have to be substituted by other industry or industries. The suitability of the time-period must also be examined. Thus, all relevant factors must be considered by a researcher before finally defining a research problem 17
- 18. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 18 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Cont Look at any scientific paper, and you will see the research problem, written almost like a statement of intent. Defining a research problem is crucial in defining the quality of the answers, and determines the exact research method used. A quantitative experimental design uses deductive reasoning to arrive at a testable hypothesis. Qualitative research designs use inductive reasoning to propose a research statement. 18
- 19. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 19 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Example An anthropologist might find references to a relatively unknown tribe in Papua New Guinea. Through inductive reasoning, she arrives at the research problem and asks, How do these people live and how does their culture relate to nearby tribes? She has found a gap in knowledge, and she seeks to fill it, using a qualitative case study, without a hypothesis
- 20. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 20 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Steps in formulating a research problem Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you. Dissect the broad area into subareas Select what is of most interest to you. Raise research questions Formulate objectives Assess your objectives Double-check
- 21. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 21 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques The formulation of research objectives Objectives should be listed under two headings: main objectives; subobjectives. The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your study. It is also a statement of the main associations and relationships that you seek to discover or establish. The subobjectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to investigate within the main framework of your study.
- 22. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 22 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Example 1: Suppose you want to conduct a study in the area of alcoholism. In formulating your research problem take the following steps.
- 23. RESEARCH DESIGNS
- 24. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 24 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques RESEARCH DESIGN The term RESEARCH DESIGN is used to describe an overall plan of how you intend to go about conducting a study to address the issue you are interested in. A Good research design ensures that you obtain the best evidence to validly and reliably answer your research question. In the Research process once the research project is identified and defined clearly, the next stage is to design the research.
- 25. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 25 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. (i) What is the study about? (ii) Why is the study being made? (iii) Where will the study be carried out? (iv) What type of data is required? (v) Where can the required data be found? (vi) What periods of time will the study include
- 26. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 26 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques PARTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN Sample design :Which deals with the methods of selecting items to be observed for the study. Observation design :Which relates to the condition under which the observation are to be create. Statistical design :Which concern the question of How the information and data gathered are to be analyzed? Operational design : Which deals with techniques which the procedures the procedures satisfied in sampling.
- 27. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 27 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques IMPORTANT FEATURES OF GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the following features: The means of obtaining information. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any. The objective of the problem to be studied. The nature of the problem to be studied. The availability of time and money for the research work.
- 28. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 28 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN Dependent and Independent variables A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as dependent variable. It is a variable that stands alone and isn't changed by the other variables you are trying to measure, is termed as independent variable. Extraneous Variables Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variables are termed as Extraneous variables.
- 29. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 29 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Cont Control To minimize the influence or effect of extraneous variables. The technical term control is used when we design the study minimizing the effect of extraneous independent variable. Confounded relationship When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable. The relationship between the dependent and independent variable is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable. Research hypothesis The researcher hypothesis is a predicative statement that relates an independent variable to dependent variable. It should contain atleast one independent and one dependent variable.
- 30. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 30 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis testing research. It can be experimental or non-experimental. Research in which an independent variable can be manipulated is termed as experimental hypothesis-testing research. Research in which an independent variable can not be manipulated is termed as non- experimental hypothesis-testing research.
- 31. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 31 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Cont Experimental and control groups In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a control group, but when the group is exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed an experimental group. Treatments The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are usually referred to as treatments. Experiment The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some research problem, is known as an experiment.
- 32. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 32 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Cont Experiment The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some research problem, is known as an experiment. Experimental unit(s) The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments are used, are known as experimental units. Such experimental units must be selected (defined) very arefully.
- 34. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 34 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Research design in case of exploratory research studies (formulative ) The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study. Three methods : (a) the survey of concerning literature (b) the experience survey (c) the analysis of insight-stimulating examples.
- 35. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 35 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with something else. the researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure and must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut definition of population he wants to study. Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate information in the said studies, the procedure to be used must be carefully planned make enough provision for protection against bias and must maximise reliability, with due concern for the economical completion of the research study it must ensure the minimisation of bias and maximisation of reliability of the evidence collected
- 36. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 36 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Cont The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the following: (a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being made?) (b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be adopted?) (c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?) (d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period should the data be related?) (e) Processing and analysing the data. (f) Reporting the findings.
- 37. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 37 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about causality Professor R.A. Fishers name is associated with experimental designs. Beginning of such designs was made by him when he was working at Rothamsted Experimental Station (Centre for Agricultural Research in England). Such the study of experimental designs has its origin in agricultural research. Since experimental designs originated in the context of agricultural operations, we still use, though in a technical sense, several terms of agriculture (such as treatment, yield, plot, block etc.) in experimental designs.
- 38. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 38 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs (1) the Principle of Replication : the experiment should be repeated more than once the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased Conceptually replication does not present any difficulty, but computationally it does (2) the Principle of Randomization provides protection, when we conduct an experiment, against the effect of extraneous factors by randomization we can have a better estimate of the experimental error
- 39. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 39 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Cont (3) Principle of Local Control through the principle of local control we can eliminate the variability due to extraneous factor(s) from the experimental errorthe statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased This means that we should plan the experiment in a manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of variance, in which the total variability of the data is divided into three components attributed to treatments
- 40. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 40 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Important Experimental Designs (a) Informal experimental designs: (i) Before-and-after without control design. (ii) After-only with control design. (iii) Before-and-after with control design. (b) Formal experimental designs: (i) Completely randomized design (C.R. Design). (ii) Randomized block design (R.B. Design). (iii) Latin square design (L.S. Design). (iv) Factorial designs.
- 41. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 41 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Before-and-after without control design
- 42. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 42 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques After-only with control design
- 43. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 43 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Before-and-after with control design
- 44. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 44 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Completely randomized design (C.R. design):
- 45. Dr. Neelam Dewangan 45 Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Pune Research Methodology and Techniques Randomized block design (R.B. design)
- 46. THANKS