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Clutter
The Importance of Interiors for
ADHD Brains
Kirsty Palmer-Kay

Contents
Introduction 4
ADHD 5
Existing Space 7
Too Much and Not Enough 8
Tidy Room, Tidy Mind 13
Stuff is Great 14
Minimalism versus Maximalism 16
Conclusion 22
Design for Productivity 23
Design for Relaxation 28
Can Design Really Help? 29
Glossary 30
Bibliography 33
List of Figures 37

Introduction
Prefrontal Cortex
Basal Ganglia
Reticular Activating System
Limbic System
4
Figure 1.
Brain Regions affected by ADHD

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) is a complex neurological
condition usually diagnosed in childhood
(CDC, 2022). ADHD brains are physically
different in comparison with neurotypical
brains and have impairments in the
prefrontal cortex, the limbic system, basal
ganglia, and reticular activating system
(Figure 1), as well as having low levels
of norepinephrine and dopamine (Silver,
2022). Symptoms include disorganisation,
poor executive function, poor self-
regulation, trouble prioritising, poor focus,
poor time management, hyperactivity,
emotional dysregulation, trouble
completing tasks, frustration, and inability
to cope with stress (Mayo Clinic, 2022).
Symptoms vary in severity and impact all
aspects of a person’s life every day, which
is both frustrating for the individual and
for those around them. They struggle to
cope with life’s demands, never seeming
to be able to avoid negative outcomes,
and those around them simply cannot
understand their behaviour.
It has been suggested that ADHD should
be more accurately described as an
“attention inconsistency” rather than a
deficit (Hallowell & Ratey, 1994), as ADHD
brains can hyperfocus on one thing for
an egregiously long time, while not being
able to concentrate on another thing for
any time at all. People with ADHD can
often be labelled as ‘unmotivated’ because
they cannot always focus. In reality,
ADHD brains are highly motivated in
finding the perfect stimulation to increase
dopamine and, cognitive functioning,
which comes above all other goals. This is
an unconscious action on the part of the
individual and they cannot prevent it from
happening. When they find an effective
stimulus, ADHD brains inaccurately think
some of this stimulus is good, so more will
be better. Usually, more is too much, and
they find themselves plunged directly into
a state of chronic overwhelm resulting in
their brain shutting down entirely. This is
usually followed by intense emotions such
as anger or frustration directed toward
themselves. For comparison, neurotypical
brains naturally experience changing
5
ADHD

levels of stimulation, but they are simply
able to continue to function through
thanks to their sufficient levels of
neurotransmitters (Littman, 2014).
Since the ADHD brain seeks out
stimulation, using stimulant medication
to treat symptoms of ADHD is one of the
most used and best-supported treatments
(Faber Taylor & Kuo, 2009). Clinicians aim
to prescribe medication alongside other
strategies such as talk and behavioural
therapies to help alleviate negative
ADHD symptoms. Despite this, there
is an increasing demand for alternative
treatments for ADHD (van den Berg
& van den Berg, 2010), and research
has suggested that “environmental
enhancement contributes to positive
neurodevelopmental outcomes” (Faber
Taylor & Kuo, 2009). This paper seeks
to explore the impact that interior spaces
have on ADHD brains and if spatial
design could be used to facilitate positive
outcomes for people with ADHD.
6

Existing Space
7
Figure 2.
Flat teaching room, ELA 110, Northumbria University, Interior Perspective

People with ADHD experience their
symptoms predominantly within the built
environment. They struggle to sleep within
their bedroom, they struggle to focus and
concentrate within a classroom, or they
struggle with organisation at the office.
Our relationship with the built environment
means that our lives and behaviours are
intrinsically linked to physical space, and
for people with ADHD, these spaces have
the potential to be helpful, but they can
also be harmful. Either way, ADHD and
interior environments are not as separate
as they may appear to be. Research has
shown that the physical environment
does impact brain cognition, as well as
emotions, behaviours, and relationships
(Sander, 2019).
Today, many interior spaces can be aptly
described as plain, empty, or boring. This
is certainly true for many educational
settings, with white walls and harsh
fluorescent lights, furnished with only the
bare minimum functional equipment with
little to no design consideration (Figure 2).
For a neurotypical brain, this might be fine.
It might not be the most attractive space,
but they will be able to ignore it and focus
on the information they are being taught,
not giving their surroundings another
thought. For a neurodivergent ADHD
brain, with nothing else at all to look at
other than a projected presentation, or
a teacher talking, these blank spaces
may not be enough to best stimulate
their brain. It does not necessarily seem
problematic, but being expected to listen
and to focus for a prolonged period can
be challenging in a space with such little
visual stimulation.
While the content of the lecture or
lesson provides some stimulation, the
effectiveness of this will be dependent
on both the individual and their interest
in the topic at hand, as well as other
factors, such as mood. With nothing else
to stimulate the individual, they may get
bored, or have trouble listening to and
absorbing information, particularly if they
are disinterested in the topic. If someone
with ADHD feels under stimulated, they
will find ways to stimulate their
8
Too Much and Not Enough

brain (Fletcher, 2021). This may be in
relatively discreet ways such as fidgeting
or doodling, but stimulation can also be
sought out in more harmful ways such as
laughing and talking to peers. This then
has a negative impact on everyone in the
room, not just the person struggling with
ADHD.
Hypersensitivity to light is not uncommon
for people with ADHD to experience
(Stiles, 2021). Fluorescent lighting, and
similar LED lighting, causes most issues
for people with ADHD because the bright
artificial light it produces is not balanced
and full spectrum, unlike that of the sun,
and is more intense. This can cause visual
stress for neurodivergent brains and
have a negative impact on learning. More
suitable lighting that mimics that of the sun
has been shown to accelerate learning,
as well as improve mood, particularly
in the darker months (Lambert, 2021).
Hypersensitivity to light varies from person
to person, but unsuitable lighting can lead
to headaches, as well as other problems
including the inability to concentrate which
is an existing problem for individuals with
ADHD.
As well as being under stimulated, ADHD
brains can become overwhelmed very
quickly and easily. Physical environments
in which there is too much visual
stimulation could overwhelm an ADHD
brain, as well as distract them from
important tasks, particularly if they deem
the visual stimuli to be more interesting
(Figure 3). These spaces could have
bright or clashing colours on the walls,
things of intrigue in the distance that are
calling to be explored, or just too many
different things to look at simultaneously.
This also applies to other environmental
stimuli such as hearing activity in other
areas or other spaces, observing activity
which seems more appealing than what
is expected of them, or other factors
that those with ADHD may be unable
to filter out. It has been suggested that
environments which require more attention
to be in makes giving attention to tasks
in those environments more difficult and
leaves the individual needing longer rest
periods to allow for attention recovery
(Kaplan et al., 2005).
9

10
Figure 3.
Livingroom in the Manhattan apartment of Diana Vreeland. Designed by Billy Baldwin. Photographed by
Richard Champion.

same noise might be so off putting that
they are completely unable to focus or
ignore it. While there is a lot of focus
on how people with ADHD can be more
productive, focus more and learn more,
this ignores a significant problem for
people with ADHD brains, turning them
off. When it is time to swich off and relax
at the end of the day, ADHD brains have
a hard time stopping, so they usually
keep thinking, and they keep worrying,
and they keep mulling over all the things
they have on their to-do list (Smith, 2021).
While in most other situations, a level of
stimulation provided by clutter can be
helpful, clutter, work materials, or anything
that requires action can trigger anxiety and
can be harmful if present in a space where
someone with ADHD is trying to sleep or
relax (Jenkins, 2018).
Usually, nature is associated with
relaxation, but for ADHD brains, spending
time in nature helps people to concentrate
more (Faber Taylor & Kuo, 2009), and
living in a home with views of nature
improved both self-discipline and cognitive
performance (van den Berg & van den
Berg, 2010).
People with ADHD tend to be messy and
disorganised, struggling to keep on top of
everyday tasks and often live in spaces
with lots of clutter. This can be difficult
for an ADHD brain, particularly if they are
required to complete important tasks in a
messy or cluttered space. They can feel
trapped between completing important
tasks as a priority or tidying their space
to achieve the mental clarity they need to
work effectively. This conflict could feel
like too much to deal with. Overwhelm
can then mentally paralyse the individual,
and they will not be able to tidy the clutter
or complete the tasks that they need to,
feeling they are trapped in a cycle they
cannot get out of. Inadequate stimulation,
as well as disorganisation, have been
found to have a negative impact on
children within the home, particularly those
with ADHD (Einziger et al., 2019).
Some people with ADHD are more
sensitive to noise than their neurotypical
peers, finding it hard to filter out
background noise, like other conversations
in a café, or being distracted by noises
which other people may not (Green, 2022).
Sometimes this may just distract them
momentarily, whereas other times, the
11

12
Figure 4.
Belvue Woodland Classrooms, Designed by Studio Weave, Photograped by Jim Stephenson.

Tidy Room, Tidy Mind
13
Figure 5.
Bedroom in plan

It is common for people with ADHD to own
many belongings and live in spaces filled
with lots of stuff. A key symptom of ADHD
is impulsivity and can include impulsive
spending. Impaired executive functioning
results in some people with ADHD buying
things they want when they see them
(Low, 2020), without considering what
they already have or if they really need
something new. The act of shopping often
provides the dopamine rush that ADHD
brains crave which in the moment is hard
to resist.
It has been said that “Individuals with
ADHD experience life more intensely
than neurotypicals” (Dodson, 2021). This
intensity includes emotions and feelings
about sentimentality, which can make
getting rid of stuff more difficult as they feel
connected to the things they own and feel
guilty about getting rid of things they might
not need because it was given to them by
someone they care about or is tied to a
memory (Maynard, 2020).
Hoarding has traditionally been associated
with OCD (obsessive compulsive
disorder), but research is beginning to
suggest that hoarding is more closely
related with ADHD (Tolin & Villavicencio,
2011). Not everyone with ADHD has
hoarding disorder as a comorbidity, but
it is thought that 1 in 5 adults with ADHD
have significant hoarding symptoms
(Anglia Ruskin University, 2022). It has
been suggested that those with ADHD
have similar traits to those with hoarding
disorder such as difficulty discarding, the
acquisition of clutter, poor organisation,
poor long-term planning, poor spatial and
working memory, attention problems and
deficits in executive functioning (Hacker et
al., 2016).
Being surrounded by clutter has been
proven to increase anxiety and decrease
a person’s overall satisfaction with life,
leading to cognitive overload which
reduces both the working memory and
the ability to focus. Sleeping in a cluttered
room can also lead to problems falling
14
Stuff is Great

asleep, as well as poor sleep quality
(Sander, 2019). These are all problems
that people with ADHD commonly struggle
with, so a person with ADHD living or
working in a cluttered environment (Figure
5) could exacerbate ADHD symptoms.
15

15
Figure 6.
My Bed by Tracey Emin, © Tracey Emin

Traditional organisation systems do
not tend to work for people with ADHD
and organisation itself is both difficult to
implement and keep up with when your
executive function is impaired. It is clear
how it can be problematic if an individual
has both a lot of belongings and no way
of organising them and is exactly how
clutter becomes a problem (Figure 6). In
recent years, there has emerged a growing
industry focused on minimalism and order,
claiming that these methods of living can
significantly improve your life. The success
of these claims is measured by millions
of dollars in annual revenue (Vohs et al.,
2013). This industry promotes decluttering
things you own but do not need, but also
pushes you to buy more stuff to organise
the stuff you choose to keep, such as
organisation systems for items in your
fridge or cosmetic products. It could be
argued that this is not actually minimalism
since you do not really need additional
organisation boxes within your fridge.
Some organisation devices can be useful
for keeping on top of things, but what
works and what does not is individual
to everyone. For some people with ADHD,
getting the food you buy into the fridge is
achievement enough without having to
then organise it further. Additional steps
like this can actually be counterproductive
for people with ADHD and too many
obstacles can deter the ADHD brain from
attempting a task at all. True minimalism,
however, is about living only with what you
need and not holding on to unnecessary
possessions, which seems like a logical
way to live.
Minimalism focuses on simplicity, and
can be a way of living, as well as a way
of designing. Minimal interiors can often
be very beautiful and calming, with clean
lines and low visual stimulation. Clutter
is often stowed away in undetectable
storage, and you would not be mistaken
to think that nobody at all has ever really
lived in these spaces (Figure 7). Although
these spaces look beautiful, they are
probably not very practical for an ADHD
brain upon closer inspection. People with
ADHD can struggle with finding things or
remembering that they exist if they
16
Minimalism versus Maximalism

cannot see the item itself, or other visual
cues which remind them of the item
(Green, 2022). Having belongings hidden
away in storage could cause a person with
ADHD to forget they own the item, cause
difficulty in finding the item, and could
disrupt day to day life.
17

18
Figure 7.
A-PLACE K916, Designed by Thisispaper Studio, Photographed by Maja Wirkus.

Clutter is almost always touted as a bad
thing but for the ADHD brain, photos on
the walls, knickknacks on the mantle
and objects that spark joy or bring back
memories could be positive. Seeing your
space filled with sentimental belongings
could provide a sense of comfort and
remind an individual that this space is
home. This comfort is important because
having ADHD can be difficult emotionally.
ADHD brains seek out stimulation, and
this is usually talked about through an
individual engaging in an activity which
stimulates the brain but takes them
away from the task at hand which is
the most important at the time. There is
value, however, in visual stimulation. The
presence of these objects could provide
a level of stimulation to an individual with
ADHD without fully pulling them away from
important tasks.
A study, which looked at physical order
and disorder in relation to behaviour,
found that people in messy rooms had
more creative ideas than they did when
sitting in a tidy and orderly room, and
that disorder produces creativity because
they inspire people to break away from
convention (Vohs et al., 2013).
Being in spaces which are more
physically ordered, clean and tidy can
have a positive impact on mental health,
physical health, and other aspects of living
which people with ADHD might struggle
with. Decluttering is arguably useful for
everyone to do every now and again,
but can be difficult for people with ADHD
for a plethora of reasons. For those with
hoarding tendencies and strong emotional
attachments to items, studies have shown
that discarding items triggers the same
brain areas as when someone burns
themselves or is otherwise physically
hurt (Tolin et al., 2012). This reaction to
the loss of personal belongings could
suggest that for some individuals,
sorting and decluttering all belongings
to reap the rewards of physical order is
simply not worth the emotional pain and
distress, they would have to endure in the
process. As people with ADHD often act
impulsively and it is possible that they may
accidentally declutter something important
or sentimental that they did not mean to
get rid of, triggering a range of emotions
from fear to sadness, depending on the
items value, purpose and replaceability,
and potentially other consequences.
19

Again, this suggests that mess can be
both positive and helpful for productivity
and potentially happiness and satisfaction,
too (Figure 8).
20

21
Figure 8.
Albert Einstein’s office at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, photographed on
the day of his death, April 18, 1955, Photographed by Ralph Morse.

Conclusion
22
Figure 9.
Orderly workspace, Desk designed by Keiji Ashizawa.

It seems that an ADHD brain in a space
with low visual stimulation can lead to an
individual with ADHD to cause disruption
and distraction as they seek out the
stimulation that neither their brain nor
environment is providing them with. An
ADHD brain in a space with very high
visual stimulation can cause distraction,
overwhelm and even meltdown. Each
situation and corresponding negative
outcomes represent a different end of
the spectrum regarding visual stimulation
and suggests that if the level of visual
stimulation in a space was more balanced,
the space could help a person with ADHD
to be as productive as their neurotypical
peers, reduce harmful methods of seeking
stimulation, and improve the wellbeing of
both the individual with ADHD and their
peers.
Visual stimulation in spaces designed for
productivity could be achieved through
creating visually interesting interior spaces
that do not necessarily instigate further
investigation to avoid creating distraction.
Educational settings often have colourful
display boards filled with information,
and while these do provide a good level
of stimulation, it is important that they
are relevant to the topic and activity of
the room. Similarly, information posters
about events and extracurricular activities
in these spaces can also encourage
the mind to wander. It is not that these
posters or information boards are harmful
to people with ADHD, but rather that their
presence in a space which demands focus
is a distraction and might be better located
elsewhere. Displaying relevant material in
relevant spaces can both limit distractions
and provide cues to people with ADHD
about the expectations of a space and
what is meant to happen in there. This
way, they understand which spaces are for
learning, which spaces are for socialising,
etc.
In some situations where an individual
with ADHD is expected to be creative, a
certain level of mess or clutter has been
proven to increase creativity (Vohs et al.,
2013), as well as providing visual and
mental stimulation. It could be that the
23
Design for Productivity

benefits of clutter can be seen when the
clutter is related to the task, rather than
general clutter. For example, a design
student with ADHD working more creatively
and effectively in their university studio
at a messy desk which is cluttered with
pens and pencils, past works, half-finished
drawings, scraps of paper to scribble
down ideas, books filled with inspiration,
etc. The same student working at home in
their bedroom where there is also a pile
of laundry to put away, clothes to wash,
belongings spilled out across the floor and
every possible surface, a pile of personal
admin tasks to complete, etc, may not
work more creatively. Although there is
clutter in both scenarios, the type of clutter
is different. The clutter at home serves as
a visual to-do list, and is a distraction from
the creative process, while the clutter on
their desk inspires freedom and creativity.
While visual stimulation is important
and can lead to positive outcomes, it is
essential that the right type of stimulation
is provided in the right setting. The positive
benefits of green space on cognition
suggests that a connection to the outside
is beneficial for ADHD productivity, and can
help to provide stimulation in spaces.
Research into order and disorder has
also shown that productivity can be
achieved in a highly ordered space, but
that working in these spaces produces
outcomes which conform to societal
expectations and linear thinking (Vohs
et al., 2013). This could also support the
idea that spaces can be manipulated
to produce desired outcomes and
behaviours. Learning about maths where
answers are either right or wrong in a
highly ordered space (Figure 9) could be
the most effective environment for this
to happen in but engaging in art class in
a more disorganised space (Figure 10)
could be the most effective environment
for this activity.
24

25
Figure 10.
Joyce Pensato’s studio in Brooklyn, NY, Photographed by Jason Mandella

every person with ADHD is different. If
spaces are designed too rigidly, they
might not be fully suitable or inclusive for
everyone.
Exercise, but more specifically movement
of the body in a broader sense, has been
shown to improve concentration and
produce positive outcomes (Faber Taylor
& Kuo, 2009) and could be achieved
through devices such as standing desks
and even walking desks, as well as
traditional sitting desks and alternative
working spaces (Figure 11). Flexibility in
spaces could allow for adjustments like
this and could increase concentration in
ADHD brains as well as providing physical
health benefits and increase endorphins.
ADHD brains get bored, so flexibility and
changing settings is usually a good thing.
Lighting and acoustics are both important
design considerations but are particularly
important in the context of neurodivergent
brains and productivity. It has been shown
that lighting which mimics the rise of the
sun, as well as the slightly warmer broad
spectrum of light it emits, can benefit
people with ADHD and light sensitivity, but
also other individuals including those with
mood disorders, and is generally more
pleasant to work in (Lambert, 2021).
Acoustic considerations should seek
to limit the transfer of sound between
spaces, but again, this could be
manipulated for different outcomes.
In areas which aim to encourage
socialisation or collaboration, a low level
of noise could be beneficial, whereas
areas of deep concentration and individual
learning may benefit more from silence.
The existing noise levels in a space could
also serve as cues to a neurodiverse
person to define what happens in
particular spaces and subtly reinforce
what is expected of them within those
spaces.
Although there is some crossover between
individuals and their ADHD symptoms,
26

27
Figure 11.
Workspace, Designed by Linehouse, Photographed by Dirk Weiblen.

Productivity without relaxation leads
to burnout, so the ability to unwind
is essential to sustain productivity.
Unfortunately, ADHD brains also struggle
to switch off and to sleep. Relaxation is
best achieved in calm spaces with low
levels of visual stimulation. The problem
with this is that people generally tend to
relax and sleep within their homes, the
same homes that are usually cluttered.
Clutter is not inherently bad, but may
serve an individual better if it is not present
in rooms designed for relaxation and
unwinding, to avoid encouraging the ADHD
brain to work overtime.
People with ADHD can feel emotions more
intensely than their neurotypical peers,
particularly negative emotions. They can
also feel misunderstood and left out and
have strong emotional reactions to these
feelings. The presence of their belongings
in their own home could act as somewhat
of a comfort blanket when everything gets
a bit too much, signifying that they are safe
in this space and reinforcing their sense of
self and place in the world. This comfort
could be relaxing and could again be a
visual cue to remind them that, despite
the way they feel, they are home and
everything is okay. Despite this, excessive
clutter may be better suited to areas of
productivity or general living spaces,
where they can still seek comfort from
them, but having a dedicated space to
truly relax and switch off is important.
Lighting which focuses on the natural
cycle of the sunset can have positive
impacts on sleep and relaxation. It can
help with body clock regulation, and can
provide a visual cue that signifies that it
is time to unwind. A space for relaxation
will look different for everyone, but maybe
this is an appropriate space to embrace
minimalism.
28
Design for Relaxation

It is not fully known what specific elements
of spatial design are beneficial to ADHD
brains and is an area which requires more
research to fully understand how spatial
considerations can best support ADHD
brains. Existing research explored within
this paper suggests that spaces can be
enhanced and manipulated to produce
required or desirable outcomes. Physical
order to create linear thinking, messy
workspaces for creativity, sentimental
clutter for comfort, creative clutter for
productivity, minimalism for relaxation,
lighting to improve mood and cognition,
lighting to aid sleep, green space to
enhance positive behaviours, visual
stimulation in interiors to prevent harmful
behaviours and increase productivity.
Interiors can be used to provide
environmental cues to signify to an ADHD
brain what is acceptable and expected
within particular spaces and can limit the
discomfort an ADHD brain might feel as
a result of environmental stimuli. It has
shown that flexibility is important because
every ADHD brain is different, but that
designing with the ADHD brain in mind
does not come at the detriment of
neurotypical brains. In the debate of
minimalism vs maximalism it has shown
that there is room for both, and that maybe
two opposing concepts can come together
to support the ADHD in different and
unexpected ways.
Ultimately, it seems that the ADHD brain
really does respond to the environment
around it, and that when it is in the right
place at the right time, interior spaces can
support the ADHD mind to work well. The
way space is designed is by no means
going to mitigate all symptoms of ADHD
for every person with ADHD, but its impact
is measurable and should be considered
by healthcare professionals as something
which could improve negative symptoms
alongside other medical interventions.
Interior architects, architects and interior
designers alike should consider the way
they design for people with ADHD and
strive to make more spaces accessible for
neurodivergent brains. More research is
needed to determine specific ways spatial
design can support ADHD brains.
29
Can Design Really Help?

Glossary
Basal Ganglia
Cognitive Functioning
Comorbidity
Dopamine
Emotional Dysregulation
Endorphins
Executive function
Hoarding disorder
Hyperactivity
Hyperfocus
A group of neuron clusters in the brain responsible for movement,
response to stimuli, planning and learning (Reynolds, 2015).
Performing mental processes such as learning, awareness,
understanding, perception, memory, reasoning, language, judgement, and
intuition (APA Dictionary of Psychology, 2022).
A comorbidity is a condition which exists alongside another condition
(Yetman, 2022).
A neurotransmitter which is released as a result of pleasurable
experiences (Watson, 2021).
A person being unable to control or regulate their emotional responses in
an appropriate or expected way (PCH Treatment Center, 2021).
A neurotransmitter within the body found to reduce pain and produce
feelings of happiness and wellbeing (NCI, 2023).
A set of mental skills that allow people to navigate everyday life including
working memory, flexible thinking and self-control (Belksy, 2022).
A mental health condition where someone feels the strong urge to save
many items regardless of their monetary value (Cleveland Clinic, 2022).
In ADHD, hyperactivity can mean moving around a lot, fidgeting, tapping,
talking too much or restlessness (National Institute of Mental Health,
2022).
“Complete absorption in a task to a point where a person appears to
completely ignore or ‘tune out’ everything else”. The task is usually
enjoyable for the person (Ashinoff & Abu-Akel, 2019).
30

Hypersensitivity
Limbic system
Neurodevelopment
Neurodivergent
Neurological condition
Neurotransmitter
Neurotypical
Norepinephrine
Obsessive Compulsive
Disorder
Prefrontal cortex
Reticular Activating System
Increased physical or emotional sensitivity to external stimuli often leading
to overwhelm (Neurohealth Associates, 2022).
A nerve system in the brain which controls emotions, such as fear and
anger, and needs, such as eating (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary,
2023)
The development of the brains neurological pathways (Emotiv, 2022).
A term used to describe someone who has a neurological condition (The
Brain Charity, 2022).
“Any condition that affects the brain, spinal chord or nervous system” (The
Brain Charity, 2022).
Chemical agents released to carry information in the brain and nervous
system (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2022).
A label “used to refer to anyone who does not have a neurological
condition” (The Brain Charity, 2022).
A neurotransmitter and hormone made from dopamine that transmits
nerve signals and is responsible for the fight or flight response, as well as
alertness, attention, sleep, mood and memory (Cleveland Clinic, 2022).
A condition which causes an individual to have obsessive thoughts which
cause anxiety and compulsive repetitive activities which they perform to
reduce their obsessions (Mind, 2023).
The area of the brain that is responsible for personality expression, social
behaviour and decision making (SoP, 2021).
Nerves in the brainstem responsible for filtering out unnecessary
information and allowing important information through (Schneider, 2017).
31

Self-regulation
Self-stimulation
Spatial memory
Working memory
The ability to monitor thoughts, emotions, and behaviours in acceptable
and positive ways (Yourtherapysource, 2022).
Also referred to as ‘stimming’ and are repetitive movements or sounds
made unconsciously to provide comfort or stimulation (Sosnoski, 2022).
Storing and retrieving information related to navigating an environment
such as where you have put something or how to get to a location
(Burgess & Bisby, 2018).
The ability to hold information for a short period of time for immediate
mental use (Psychology Today, 2023).
32

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36

37
List of Figures
Figure 1. Brain Regions affected by ADHD
Authours own.
Figure 2. Flat teaching room, ELA 110, Northumbria
University, Interior Perspective.
Authours own.
Figure 3. Livingroom in the Manhattan apartment of
Diana Vreeland.
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com/project/221/belvue-woodland-classroom-lon-
don-studio-weave (Accessed: January 11, 2023).
Figure 5. Bedroom in plan
Authours own
Figure 6. My Bed by Tracey Emin, © Tracey Emin
Emin, T. (1998) My Bed, Tracey Emin My Bed
1998. Available at: https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-
works/emin-my-bed-l03662 (Accessed: January 11,
2023).
Figure 7. A-PLACE K916
Wirkus, M. (2020) A-PLACE K916 by Thisispaper
Studio, MajaWirkus. Available at: https://majaw-
irkus.com/thisispaper-apartment-k916 (Accessed:
January 11, 2023).
Figure 8. Albert Einstein’s office at the Institute
for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey,
photographed on the day of his death, April 18,
1955. Morse, R. (1955) Albert Einstein’s office at
the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New
Jersey, photographed on the day of his death, April
18, 1955.
Figure 9. Orderly workspace
Ashizawa, K. (2020) Rail Wall Desk by Keiji Ashiza-
wa for Menu, Rail Wall Desk by Keiji Ashizawa.
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desk (Accessed: January 11, 2023).
Figure 10. Joyce Pensato’s studio in Brooklyn, NY
Mandella, J. (2016) Joyce Pensato’s studio in
Brooklyn, NY, Joyce Pensato. Available at: http://cu-
rator.site/interviews/2021/1/22/joyce-pensato-part-
1Joy (Accessed: January 11, 2023).
Figure 11. Workspace
Weiblen, D. (2020) Workspace by Linehouse,
Linehouse transforms Shanghai swimming pool
into office space. Available at: https://www.dezeen.
com/2020/12/17/office-interiors-shanghai-line-
house/ (Accessed: January 11, 2023).

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