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1 Potentiometry
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Polarography- Pharmaceutical Analysis
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Heyrovsky invented the original polarographic method in 1922, conventional direct current polarography (DCP).
It employs a dropping mercury electrode (DME) to continuously renew the electrode surface.
Diffusion is the mechanism of mass transport.
When an external potential is applied to a cell
containing a reducing substance such as CdCl2,
The following reaction will occur:
Cd2+ + 2e + Hg = Cd(Hg)
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voltage at a steady rate and simultaneously
record photographically the current-voltage
curve (polarogram)
The apparatus used is called a polarograph .
When an external potential is applied to a cell
containing a reducing substance such as CdCl2,
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Cd2+ + 2e + Hg = Cd(Hg)
The technique depends on increasing the applied
voltage at a steady rate and simultaneously
record photographically the current-voltage
curve (polarogram)
The apparatus used is called a polarograph .
Capillary tube about 10-15cm
Int. diameter of 0.05mm
A vertical distance being maintained betwwen DME and the solution
Drop time of 1-5 seconds
Drop diameter 0.5mm
The supporting electrolyte
is a solution of (KNO3, NaCl, Na3PO4) in which the sample (which must be electroactive) is dissolved.
Function of the supporting electrolyte
It raises the conductivity of the solution.
It carries the bulk of the current so prevent the
migration of electroactive materials to working
electrode.
It may control pH
It may associate with the electroactive solute as
in the complexing of the metal ions by ligands.
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conductometry.pptx
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potentiometry
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Conductometry titration
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1. The principles of conductometry involve measuring the electrical conductance of an electrolyte solution using a conductometer. Conductance depends on ion type, concentration, temperature, and mobility.
2. Instrumentation includes a current source, conductivity cells with platinum electrodes, and a conductance bridge to measure resistance and calculate conductivity.
3. Conductometric titrations can be used for acid-base, redox, precipitation, and complexometric titrations. They do not require indicators and can be used for colored or turbid solutions.
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Voltametry- Pharmaceutical Analysis
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1.) Voltammetry: electrochemical method in which information about an analyte is
obtained by measuring current (i) as a function of applied potential
- only a small amount of sample (analyte) is used
Instrumentation – Three electrodes in solution containing analyte
Working electrode: microelectrode whose potential is varied with time
Reference electrode: potential remains constant (Ag/AgCl electrode or calomel)
Counter electrode: Hg or Pt that completes circuit, conducts e- from signal source through solution to the working electrode
Supporting electrolyte: excess of nonreactive electrolyte (alkali metal) to conduct current
B.) Theory of Voltammetry
1.) Excitation Source: potential set by instrument (working electrode)
- establishes concentration of Reduced and Oxidized Species at electrode based on Nernst Equation:
- reaction at the surface of the electrode
Analyte selectivity is provided by the applied potential on the working electrode.
Electroactive species in the sample solution are drawn towards the working electrode where a half-cell redox reaction takes place.
Another corresponding half-cell redox reaction will also take place at the counter electrode to complete the electron flow.
The resultant current flowing through the electrochemical cell reflects the activity (i.e. concentration) of the electroactive species involved
2.) Current generated at electrode by this process is proportional to concentration at
surface, which in turn is equal to the bulk concentration
For a planar electrode:
measured current (i) = nFADA( )
where:
n = number of electrons in ½ cell reaction
F = Faraday’s constant
A = electrode area (cm2)
D = diffusion coefficient (cm2/s) of A (oxidant)
= slope of curve between CMox,bulk and CMox,s
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Anticancer drugs: Classification , general toxicity and Alkylating agents.
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Polarography principle and instrumentation
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Potentiometry
PotentiometryPavana K APotentiometry is an electrochemical method of Analysis deals with the measurement of electric potential or emf of an electrolyte solution under the condition of constant current.
Potentiometry is the measurement of electrical potential of an electrolyte solution to determine its concentration.
The principle is based on the fact that the potential of the given sample is directly proportional to the concentration of its electro active ions or its activity (pH)
When the pair of electrodes is placed in the sample solution it shows the potential difference by the addition of the titrant or by the change in the concentration of the ions.
The theory of potentiometry is based on the nernst equation.It gives the basic relationship between the potential generated by an electrochemical cell and the concentration of the ions.
The potential E ( Half cell potential) of any electrode is given by nernst equation
Heavy metals toxicity
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Biological effects of radiation
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Google Classrom Link: https://classroom.google.com/c/MzM1NjcyOTIxMjgy?cjc=vbwvno4
FACEBOOK: https://www.facebook.com/rohitkrtrivedi
INSTAGRAM: https://www.instagram.com/rohit_kumar_trivedi
SLIDESHARE: /Rohittrivedi321
#RohitKumarTrivedi
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conductometry.pptx
conductometry.pptxiqra3273Conductometry involves measuring the electrical conductivity of a solution. It works by applying a potential difference between electrodes in a solution, causing ion migration and electrical conductivity. Conductance is inversely proportional to resistance. Conductometric titrations monitor conductivity changes during titrations to identify the equivalence point. Advantages include simplicity, not requiring indicators, and suitability for turbid or colored solutions. Applications include water purity testing, pharmaceutical analysis, and determining salinity.
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Betatron ppt suya
Betatron ppt suyaSuyaPadhraHaridhaThe document summarizes the betatron, a device that accelerates electrons to high energies. It works on the principle of transformer induction, where a changing magnetic field induces an electric field that accelerates electrons in a circular path. The betatron consists of an evacuated doughnut chamber with electromagnets that produce an increasing magnetic field. This causes an induced electric field to accelerate electrons injected from a cathode, keeping them moving in a constant radius orbit through magnetic force balance. The maximum energy electrons attain is directly proportional to the strongest magnetic field achieved.
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potentiometry
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Conductometry titration
Conductometry titrationKrishna KumarThis document provides an overview of conductometry, including:
1. The principles of conductometry involve measuring the electrical conductance of an electrolyte solution using a conductometer. Conductance depends on ion type, concentration, temperature, and mobility.
2. Instrumentation includes a current source, conductivity cells with platinum electrodes, and a conductance bridge to measure resistance and calculate conductivity.
3. Conductometric titrations can be used for acid-base, redox, precipitation, and complexometric titrations. They do not require indicators and can be used for colored or turbid solutions.
Radiopharmaceuticals....
Radiopharmaceuticals....Sandip MavchiThis document provides definitions and information about radiopharmaceuticals. It defines radiopharmaceuticals as compounds used in pharmacy that emit radiation. It discusses various radiopharmaceutical terms like radioisotopes, radioactivity, half-life, and units of radiation measurement. Examples of specific radiopharmaceuticals are provided like iodine-131 and applications discussed like diagnosis and treatment of thyroid conditions. Measurement techniques for radioactivity like Geiger-Muller counters are described. Effects of radiation on biological tissue and examples of different types of radiation emissions are summarized.
Voltametry- Pharmaceutical Analysis
Voltametry- Pharmaceutical AnalysisSanchit DhankharA.) Comparison of Voltammetry to Other Electrochemical Methods
1.) Voltammetry: electrochemical method in which information about an analyte is
obtained by measuring current (i) as a function of applied potential
- only a small amount of sample (analyte) is used
Instrumentation – Three electrodes in solution containing analyte
Working electrode: microelectrode whose potential is varied with time
Reference electrode: potential remains constant (Ag/AgCl electrode or calomel)
Counter electrode: Hg or Pt that completes circuit, conducts e- from signal source through solution to the working electrode
Supporting electrolyte: excess of nonreactive electrolyte (alkali metal) to conduct current
B.) Theory of Voltammetry
1.) Excitation Source: potential set by instrument (working electrode)
- establishes concentration of Reduced and Oxidized Species at electrode based on Nernst Equation:
- reaction at the surface of the electrode
Analyte selectivity is provided by the applied potential on the working electrode.
Electroactive species in the sample solution are drawn towards the working electrode where a half-cell redox reaction takes place.
Another corresponding half-cell redox reaction will also take place at the counter electrode to complete the electron flow.
The resultant current flowing through the electrochemical cell reflects the activity (i.e. concentration) of the electroactive species involved
2.) Current generated at electrode by this process is proportional to concentration at
surface, which in turn is equal to the bulk concentration
For a planar electrode:
measured current (i) = nFADA( )
where:
n = number of electrons in ½ cell reaction
F = Faraday’s constant
A = electrode area (cm2)
D = diffusion coefficient (cm2/s) of A (oxidant)
= slope of curve between CMox,bulk and CMox,s
Radiopharmaceuticals
RadiopharmaceuticalsHemantAlhat1Radiopharmaceuticals
inorganic Chemicals used for diagnosis as well for treatment of various disease such as cancer etc
Radiopaque contrast media:
Anticancer drugs: Classification , general toxicity and Alkylating agents.
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Polarography principle and instrumentation
Polarography principle and instrumentationKIRANBARBATKARJaroslav Heyrovsky invented polarography in 1922 and won the Nobel Prize for it in 1959. Polarography involves using a dropping mercury electrode (DME) and saturated calomel electrode (SCE) to study the electrical properties of solutions through electrolysis. As mercury drops from the DME into the solution, the current is measured at different voltages to generate a polarogram curve and determine the concentration and nature of solutes present. The DME allows for a wide potential range and surface regeneration between drops.
Potentiometry
PotentiometryPavana K APotentiometry is an electrochemical method of Analysis deals with the measurement of electric potential or emf of an electrolyte solution under the condition of constant current.
Potentiometry is the measurement of electrical potential of an electrolyte solution to determine its concentration.
The principle is based on the fact that the potential of the given sample is directly proportional to the concentration of its electro active ions or its activity (pH)
When the pair of electrodes is placed in the sample solution it shows the potential difference by the addition of the titrant or by the change in the concentration of the ions.
The theory of potentiometry is based on the nernst equation.It gives the basic relationship between the potential generated by an electrochemical cell and the concentration of the ions.
The potential E ( Half cell potential) of any electrode is given by nernst equation
Heavy metals toxicity
Heavy metals toxicityAmira BadrThis document discusses heavy metal toxicity, specifically focusing on lead toxicity. It defines heavy metals, describes common sources of exposure, and details the absorption, distribution, elimination and pathophysiology of heavy metals like lead in the body. Signs and symptoms of both acute and chronic heavy metal poisoning are provided, with a focus on lead toxicity in children which can cause developmental delays and learning disabilities. The document concludes with discussing diagnostic tests for heavy metal toxicity and treatments options like chelation therapy.
Biological effects of radiation
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Potentiometry
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Introduction to pharmacology
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12.drugs used in rheumatoid arthritis and gout
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Types of Redox Titration & Principles and Applications.pdf
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Revision of tenses
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Հին աշխարհի կրոնական համակարգերը
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Էլեկտրական հոսանք
- 2. ՍԱՀՄԱՆՈՒՄ Էլեկտրական հոսանքը լիցքավորված մասնիկների ուղղորդված շարժումն է։ Նման մասնիկները կարող են լինել մետաղներում, էլեկտրոլիտներում, գազերում, վակուումում, կիսահաղորդիչներում: Երբեմն Էլեկտրական հոսանք է կոչվում նաև շեղման հոսանքը, որը առաջանում է էլեկտրական դաշտի փոփոխությունների ժամանակ։
- 3. ՏԵՍԱԿՆԵՐ Տարբերակվում է էլեկտրական հոսանքի 3 տեսակ՝ 1.Հաստատուն հոսանք, 2.Փոփոխական հոսանք, 3.Իմպուլսային էլեկտրական հոսանք:
- 4. ԱՌԱՋԱՑՄԱՆ ՀԱՄԱՐ ԱՆՀՐԱԺԵՇՏ ՊԱՅՄԱՆՆԵՐ Ինչ-որ նյութի մեջ էլեկտրական հոսանքի առկայության համար անհրաժեշտ է իրագործել երկու պայման. 1. Նյութը պետք է լիցքավորված, սակայն ազատ մասինկներ ունենա, այնպիսի մասնիկներ, որոնք կարող են ազատ տեղաշարժվել մարմնի ողջ ծավալով։ 2. Այդ մասինիկների վրա պետք է ուժ ազդի և ստիպի շարժվել մի որոշակի ուղղությունով։ Սակայն որպեսզի էլեկտրական հոսանք անցնի, պետք է հոսանքի աղբյուր։ Հոսանքի աղբյուրը հատուկ սարք է, որի միջոցով հաղարդչում էլեկտրական դաշտ է առաջանում։
- 5. ԱՂԲՅՈՒՐ Հոսանքի առաջին աղբյուրը ստեղծվել է 1800 թվականին՝ Ալեսսանդրո Վոլտայի կողմից, ով վերցրել է արծաթե ու ցինկե մի քանի տասնյակ զույգ կլոր թիթեղներ և նրանց միջև աղաջրի մեջ թրջված ստվարաթղթի կլոր միջադիրներ դնելով, այդ ամենը դասավորել սյան տեսքով։ Հետո վերին և ներքևի թիթեղներին հաղորդալար ամրացնելով, Վոլտան ստացել է հաստատուն հոսանքի առաջին աղբյորը։ Այս հոսանքի աղբյուրը կոչվում է վոլտյան սյուն։
- 6. ՀԱՅՏՆԱԲԵՐԵԼՈՒ ԵՂԱՆԱԿՆԵՐԸ Կա հոսանք հայտնաբերելու 4 եղանակ՝ 1. Հոսանք անցնելու ժամանակ հաղորդիչը տաքանում է, դա կոչվում է հոսանքի ջերմային ազդեցություն։ 2. Աղերի, թթուների, ալկալիների լուծույթները հոսանքի լավ հաղորդիչներ են։ Երբ որ հոսանք է անցնում նրանց մեջի նյութերը անջատվում են և նստում լուծույթի մեջ գտնվող մետաղական հաղորդիչների մակերեսի վրա, սա կոչվում է հոսանքի քիմիական ազդեցություն։
- 7. 1.Հաղորդիչը, որի միջով հոսանք է անցնում, ձեռք է բերում մագնիսական հատկություններ։ Այս հաղորդիչը մագնիսների նման իրեն է ձգում երկաթյա մարմիններ, սա կոչվում է հոսանքի մագնիսական ազդեցություն։ 2.Եթե կենդանու մարմնի միջով հոսանք է անցնում, կենդանու մկանների կծկում է առաջանում, սա կոչվում է հոսանքի կենսաբանական ազդեցություն։
- 8. ՄՈՒՇԵՆԲՐՈՒԿ Առաջին մարդը, ով հոսանքը իր վրա ստուգեց, հոլանդացի ֆիզիկոս Մուշենբրուկն էր։ Երբ որ հոսանքի հարված ստացավ՝ նա աշխարհին հայտարարեց, որ երբեք չի համաձայնի այսպիսի փորձության ենթարկվել, նույնիսկ եթե ֆրանսիական գահը իրեն տրվի։ Բայց այս նոր երևույթի գյուտը շատ արագ տարածվեց եվրոպական մի շարք երկրներում և արդեն մարդկանց մարմնով էլեկտրական հոսանք անցկացնելու կարելի էր տեսնել ոչ միայն անվանի ֆիզիկոսների փորձասենյակներում, այլ նաև՝ Եվրոպայի խոշոր քաղաքների ազնվանական
- 9. ՉԱՓՄԱՆ ՄԻԱՎՈՐ Ներկայիս միջազգային համակարգի միավորների հոսանքի ուժը չափվում է ամպերներով, լարումը վոլտերով; Ըստ Օհմ ի օրենքի շղթայի հոսանքի ուժը ուղիղ համեմատական լարմանը U և հակադարձ համեմատական է դիմադրության R։ P = IU = I²R = 𝑼 𝟐 𝐑 I = 𝑼 𝑹 , որտեղ P-ն հզորությունն է, իսկ R-ը՝ դիմադրությունը։