Inflammatory neuropathies are immune-mediated disorders affecting the peripheral nervous system that cause motor and sensory deficits through axonal degeneration and demyelination. Common types include Guillain-Barré syndrome, chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy, and Miller-Fisher syndrome. These conditions are diagnosed based on clinical features, electrodiagnostic testing, spinal imaging, and laboratory tests like spinal fluid analysis and antibody testing.
Synapses are points of contact between neurons that allow communication. They have three main elements: the presynaptic terminal containing synaptic vesicles, the synaptic cleft, and the postsynaptic element. Presynaptic terminals contain vesicles clustered around an active zone. The pre- and postsynaptic membranes are separated by the cleft. The postsynaptic membrane may contain receptor proteins and appear thickened.
The document discusses trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias (TACs), a group of primary headache disorders characterized by severe unilateral headache accompanied by ipsilateral cranial autonomic features. It classifies and describes the clinical presentation and treatment of the main TAC subtypes: cluster headache, paroxysmal hemicrania, short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks with conjunctival injection and tearing (SUNCT)/short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks with cranial autonomic features (SUNA), and hemicrania continua. Oxygen, triptans, and indomethacin are first-line acute treatments for these headache conditions.
The document describes a 62-year-old man named Robert who fell from a ladder while picking mangoes and was found unconscious. He was brought to the emergency department conscious but confused, complaining of left arm pain. His medical history includes hypertension. A physical exam found signs of head injury including a hematoma and neurological deficits on the right side of his body. The summary provides key details about the patient's condition and situation.
The document summarizes the neural and chemical regulation of respiration. It describes the key respiratory centers in the medulla and pons that control breathing. These include the dorsal and ventral respiratory groups in the medulla and the apneustic and pneumotaxic centers in the pons. Peripheral chemoreceptors in the carotid body and aortic body and central chemoreceptors in the medulla detect changes in blood gases like CO2 and pH to modulate breathing. Increased CO2 and H+ stimulate these chemoreceptors to enhance the activity of the respiratory centers and increase ventilation.
The document describes the human nervous system. It discusses the central nervous system (CNS) which includes the brain and spinal cord for coordination. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of nerves that coordinate and regulate body functions. It distinguishes between voluntary actions initiated by conscious decision and involuntary reflex actions. A nerve impulse is an electrical signal that passes along nerve cells called neurons. A simple reflex arc involves a receptor, sensory neuron, relay neuron, motor neuron, and effector. Synapses allow impulses to travel between neurons via the release of neurotransmitters. Sense organs such as the eye respond to specific stimuli like light. The eye contains structures like the iris, lens, retina and cornea that help focus light and detect
The adrenal medulla secretes catecholamines including adrenaline, noradrenaline, and dopamine. These hormones are synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine in the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla. Catecholamines act through intracellular mediators and have various effects, such as increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels. Their secretion increases during stress, exposure to cold, and hypoglycemia to mobilize energy stores and restore homeostasis.
The document summarizes key aspects of the endocrine pancreas and its hormones. It discusses:
- The islets of Langerhans contain alpha, beta, and delta cells that secrete glucagon, insulin, and somatostatin.
- Insulin regulates blood glucose levels through effects on glucose and lipid metabolism. Insulin secretion is stimulated by high blood glucose.
- Glucagon opposes insulin's effects and raises blood glucose through hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. It is secreted in response to low blood glucose.
- Somatostatin is secreted by delta cells and decreases secretion of insulin and glucagon. It also regulates gastrointestinal functions.
Brief overview of brain stimulation techniquesSujit Kumar Kar
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This document discusses various neurostimulation techniques used to treat psychiatric and neurological conditions. It begins by outlining the history and milestones of different brain stimulation methods from the 18th century to present day. These include the first reported use of camphor-induced seizures in 1785 to treat conditions, and the development of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in the 1930s-1950s.
The document then provides an overview of current neurostimulation techniques like ECT, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), deep brain stimulation (DBS), vagus nerve stimulation (VNS), and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). It notes their effectiveness for treating various disorders such as depression, OCD, anxiety
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate distant target organs and tissues. The major glands include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal gland, and hypothalamus. Each gland secretes specific hormones that control important body functions such as growth and development, metabolism, sexual functions, reproduction, and the stress response.
This document summarizes disease-modifying therapies for multiple sclerosis including self-injectable drugs like interferon beta-1a and glatiramer acetate, oral drugs like fingolimod and teriflunomide, intravenous drugs like natalizumab and ocrelizumab, and comparison of their effects on annualized relapse rate, EDSS progression, new MRI lesions, and percentage achieving relapse-free status over 2 years based on clinical trials. It also discusses risk factors for progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) with natalizumab treatment and acute relapse treatment options.
The document discusses techniques for recording electroencephalograms (EEGs). It begins by describing the basics of neuronal cell structure and electrical activity in the brain. It then discusses the international 10-20 system for positioning EEG electrodes on the scalp. The document outlines the key components of an EEG recording system, including biopotential electrodes, signal conditioning equipment to amplify and filter signals, and systems for recording and analyzing the EEG data. It also provides circuit diagrams to illustrate differential amplifier designs used in EEG machines to reduce interference from common-mode signals.
Cardiac artifacts appear as periodic waves that are time-locked to the heartbeat as recorded by ECG. They include electrical artifacts seen as QRS complexes and mechanical artifacts seen as pulse waves. Electrode artifacts occur due to poor electrode contact or lead movement and appear as irregular waves of varying morphology and amplitude. External device artifacts are caused by electrical or mechanical devices and may appear as 50/60Hz noise, spike-like waves from IV drips, or irregular high amplitude waves from electrical motors. Artifacts must be distinguished from physiological activity and epileptiform discharges based on characteristics like distribution, morphology, and periodicity to avoid misinterpretation.
The document summarizes key aspects of the endocrine pancreas and its hormones. It discusses:
- The islets of Langerhans contain alpha, beta, and delta cells that secrete glucagon, insulin, and somatostatin.
- Insulin regulates blood glucose levels through effects on glucose and lipid metabolism. Insulin secretion is stimulated by high blood glucose.
- Glucagon opposes insulin's effects and raises blood glucose through hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. It is secreted in response to low blood glucose.
- Somatostatin is secreted by delta cells and decreases secretion of insulin and glucagon. It also regulates gastrointestinal functions.
Brief overview of brain stimulation techniquesSujit Kumar Kar
?
This document discusses various neurostimulation techniques used to treat psychiatric and neurological conditions. It begins by outlining the history and milestones of different brain stimulation methods from the 18th century to present day. These include the first reported use of camphor-induced seizures in 1785 to treat conditions, and the development of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in the 1930s-1950s.
The document then provides an overview of current neurostimulation techniques like ECT, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), deep brain stimulation (DBS), vagus nerve stimulation (VNS), and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). It notes their effectiveness for treating various disorders such as depression, OCD, anxiety
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate distant target organs and tissues. The major glands include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal gland, and hypothalamus. Each gland secretes specific hormones that control important body functions such as growth and development, metabolism, sexual functions, reproduction, and the stress response.
This document summarizes disease-modifying therapies for multiple sclerosis including self-injectable drugs like interferon beta-1a and glatiramer acetate, oral drugs like fingolimod and teriflunomide, intravenous drugs like natalizumab and ocrelizumab, and comparison of their effects on annualized relapse rate, EDSS progression, new MRI lesions, and percentage achieving relapse-free status over 2 years based on clinical trials. It also discusses risk factors for progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) with natalizumab treatment and acute relapse treatment options.
The document discusses techniques for recording electroencephalograms (EEGs). It begins by describing the basics of neuronal cell structure and electrical activity in the brain. It then discusses the international 10-20 system for positioning EEG electrodes on the scalp. The document outlines the key components of an EEG recording system, including biopotential electrodes, signal conditioning equipment to amplify and filter signals, and systems for recording and analyzing the EEG data. It also provides circuit diagrams to illustrate differential amplifier designs used in EEG machines to reduce interference from common-mode signals.
Cardiac artifacts appear as periodic waves that are time-locked to the heartbeat as recorded by ECG. They include electrical artifacts seen as QRS complexes and mechanical artifacts seen as pulse waves. Electrode artifacts occur due to poor electrode contact or lead movement and appear as irregular waves of varying morphology and amplitude. External device artifacts are caused by electrical or mechanical devices and may appear as 50/60Hz noise, spike-like waves from IV drips, or irregular high amplitude waves from electrical motors. Artifacts must be distinguished from physiological activity and epileptiform discharges based on characteristics like distribution, morphology, and periodicity to avoid misinterpretation.
The document lists 13 famous gardens around the world, including Versailles in Paris, France; The Garden of Cosmic Speculation in Scotland, UK; Boboli Gardens in Florence, Italy; Rikugien Gardens in Tokyo, Japan; Claude Monet Gardens in Giverny, West Paris, France; Butchart Gardens in Victoria, BC, Canada; Kirstenbosch Botanical Gardens in Cape Town, South Africa; Guarapiranga Sacred Grounds in Sao Paulo, Brazil; Yu Gardens in Shanghai, China; Exbury Gardens in New Forest, England; Keukenhof Gardens in Holland; Mirabell Garden in Salzburg, Austria; and Zen Garden of Ryoan Temple in Kyoto
Erik Johansson is a 23-year-old Swedish student who creates impossible pictures that play tricks on the viewer's mind. His pictures use optical illusions and unusual perspectives to make scenes and objects appear in ways that defy perception and logic.