This document provides an overview of DRAM circuit and architecture basics. It discusses topics such as DRAM cell components, access protocols including row and column access, sense amplifiers, and address decoding. It also covers DRAM speed characteristics such as RCD, CAS latency, and row cycle time. The document traces the evolution of DRAM through technologies like FPM, EDO, SDRAM, and describes how each aimed to improve throughput and latency.
O documento resume a hist¨®ria da inform¨¢tica desde as primeiras m¨¢quinas mec?nicas de calcular at¨¦ os computadores modernos. Destaca inventores pioneiros como Pascal, Leibniz, Hollerith e Turing e marcos como o ENIAC, o surgimento dos transistores e chips, e o desenvolvimento dos primeiros sistemas operacionais.
Pipelining allows multiple instructions to be processed simultaneously by splitting the fetch-decode-execute cycle into stages so different instructions can be at different stages. Array or vector processors can perform the same operation on multiple data elements in parallel using multiple ALUs. Parallel processing can happen at different levels from pipelining within a CPU to multi-core and multiprocessor systems that distribute work across CPUs. RISC processors use simpler instructions that can complete in one cycle while CISC processors have more complex instructions implemented in hardware.
The first computers were human beings who performed complex calculations manually. The abacus was one of the earliest aids for mathematical computations. In the 1600s, inventors like Blaise Pascal and Charles Babbage began developing early mechanical calculators to reduce human error and speed up calculations. During World War 2, the U.S. military funded research into programmable electromechanical computers like the Harvard Mark I to compute ballistics firing tables faster than human computers could. The microelectronics revolution later allowed integrated circuits to replace wired components and enabled the mass production of computers.
The document discusses instruction set architecture (ISA), which defines the interface between software and hardware. It describes ISA as specifying storage locations, operations, and how to invoke and access them. The document then compares ISA to human language and discusses program compilation. It outlines the basic instruction execution model of fetching, decoding, executing and writing instructions. The document also describes different types of instruction sets like stack, accumulator and register-set architectures. Finally, it contrasts complex instruction set computers (CISC) with reduced instruction set computers (RISC).
This document provides an overview of the history and development of computer architecture. It begins with some of the earliest computing devices like the abacus and ENIAC, the first general-purpose electronic digital computer. It then discusses the evolution of CPU and memory architecture from vacuum tubes to integrated circuits and microprocessors. The document outlines different bus architectures like ISA, EISA, MCA, PCI, and AGP that were used to connect components. It also reviews memory hierarchies and I/O interfaces like IDE, SCSI, serial ports, USB, and parallel ports. The presentation aims to trace the progression of computer hardware technology over time.
Topics included:
===============================================
The different types of computers
The basic structure of a computer and its operation
Machine instructions and their execution
Integer, floating-point, and character representations
Addition and subtraction of binary numbers
Basic performance issues in computer systems
A brief history of computer development
This document provides an overview of basic computer organization and structure. It defines key terms like computer, organization, and functional units. The main functional units of a computer are described as the input, output, control unit, ALU, and memory. Basic operational concepts like fetch-execute cycles and connection between processor and memory via registers like the program counter, memory address register, and memory data register are explained. Read and write operations to memory are demonstrated. Finally, an example program is used to illustrate the overall operating steps of a computer from program loading to instruction execution.
This document discusses the EEPROM memory in AVR microcontrollers. It explains that EEPROM is non-volatile memory that can retain data when power is removed. The AVR has 512 bytes of internal EEPROM memory addressed using the 9-bit EEAR address registers EEARH and EEARL. Data is written to and read from the EEDR register, while the EECR register controls writing, reading, and interrupts for the EEPROM.
The von Neumann architecture is a computer architecture based on a 1945 description by John von Neumann. It consists of a single shared memory for both programs and data, a single bus for memory access, an arithmetic unit, and a program control unit. The von Neumann processor operates by fetching and executing cycles serially from the shared memory. It is commonly used in desktop computers, laptops, and workstations because it simplifies the control unit design while allowing both instructions and data to be retrieved from memory in the same manner.
The document discusses various aspects of computer memory systems including main memory, cache memory, and memory mapping techniques. It provides details on:
1) Main memory stores program and data during execution and consists of addressable memory cells. Memory access time is the time for a memory operation while cycle time is the minimum delay between operations.
2) Memory units include RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM and flash memory which have different characteristics like volatility and ability to be written.
3) Cache memory uses fast SRAM to improve performance by taking advantage of locality of reference where nearby memory accesses are common. Mapping techniques like direct, associative and set-associative mapping determine how
The document discusses the C programming compilation process, which consists of three main stages: 1) compilation, 2) linking, and 3) loading. The compilation stage can be further broken down into the front end, middle end, and back end. The front end handles tasks like preprocessing, parsing, and generating intermediate code. The middle end performs semantic analysis and optimizations. The back end generates target machine code. Cross compilers generate code for a platform different than the one used to build the compiler.
This document discusses the basic organization and design of computers. It covers topics such as architecture versus organization, functional units like the arithmetic logic unit and control unit, instruction formats, processor registers, stored program concepts, basic operational concepts like loading and storing data, memory access, and factors that impact performance such as pipelining and instruction set design. The document provides an overview of fundamental computer hardware components and operations.
Hypothetical machine and instruction flow scenariosMunaam Munawar
?
Hypothetical Machine.
Components of hypothetical machine.
Example of hypothetical machine.
Instruction Flow Scenarios.
Data flow fetch cycle.
Data flow indirect cycle.
Data flow interrupt cycle.
Instruction cycle state diagram.
Computer Architecture and Organization.pptxLearnersCoach
?
Computer architecture is the definition of basic attributes of hardware components and their interconnections, in order to achieve certain specified goals in terms of functions and performance. Computer Architecture refers to those attributes of a system that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program. Examples:
- the instruction set
- the number of bits used to represent various data types
- I/O mechanisms
- memory addressing techniques
Read More: https://www.learnerscoach.co.ke/introduction-to-computer-architecture/
Computer organization: the design and physical arrangement of various hardware units to work in tandem, in a orderly manner, in order to achieve the goals specified in the architecture.
Read More: https://www.learnerscoach.co.ke/introduction-to-computer-architecture-part2/
This document provides an overview of the history and development of computer architecture. It begins with some of the earliest computing devices like the abacus and ENIAC, the first general-purpose electronic digital computer. It then discusses the evolution of CPU and memory architecture from vacuum tubes to integrated circuits and microprocessors. The document outlines different bus architectures like ISA, EISA, MCA, PCI, and AGP that were used to connect components. It also reviews memory hierarchies and I/O interfaces like IDE, SCSI, serial ports, USB, and parallel ports. The presentation aims to trace the progression of computer hardware technology over time.
Topics included:
===============================================
The different types of computers
The basic structure of a computer and its operation
Machine instructions and their execution
Integer, floating-point, and character representations
Addition and subtraction of binary numbers
Basic performance issues in computer systems
A brief history of computer development
This document provides an overview of basic computer organization and structure. It defines key terms like computer, organization, and functional units. The main functional units of a computer are described as the input, output, control unit, ALU, and memory. Basic operational concepts like fetch-execute cycles and connection between processor and memory via registers like the program counter, memory address register, and memory data register are explained. Read and write operations to memory are demonstrated. Finally, an example program is used to illustrate the overall operating steps of a computer from program loading to instruction execution.
This document discusses the EEPROM memory in AVR microcontrollers. It explains that EEPROM is non-volatile memory that can retain data when power is removed. The AVR has 512 bytes of internal EEPROM memory addressed using the 9-bit EEAR address registers EEARH and EEARL. Data is written to and read from the EEDR register, while the EECR register controls writing, reading, and interrupts for the EEPROM.
The von Neumann architecture is a computer architecture based on a 1945 description by John von Neumann. It consists of a single shared memory for both programs and data, a single bus for memory access, an arithmetic unit, and a program control unit. The von Neumann processor operates by fetching and executing cycles serially from the shared memory. It is commonly used in desktop computers, laptops, and workstations because it simplifies the control unit design while allowing both instructions and data to be retrieved from memory in the same manner.
The document discusses various aspects of computer memory systems including main memory, cache memory, and memory mapping techniques. It provides details on:
1) Main memory stores program and data during execution and consists of addressable memory cells. Memory access time is the time for a memory operation while cycle time is the minimum delay between operations.
2) Memory units include RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM and flash memory which have different characteristics like volatility and ability to be written.
3) Cache memory uses fast SRAM to improve performance by taking advantage of locality of reference where nearby memory accesses are common. Mapping techniques like direct, associative and set-associative mapping determine how
The document discusses the C programming compilation process, which consists of three main stages: 1) compilation, 2) linking, and 3) loading. The compilation stage can be further broken down into the front end, middle end, and back end. The front end handles tasks like preprocessing, parsing, and generating intermediate code. The middle end performs semantic analysis and optimizations. The back end generates target machine code. Cross compilers generate code for a platform different than the one used to build the compiler.
This document discusses the basic organization and design of computers. It covers topics such as architecture versus organization, functional units like the arithmetic logic unit and control unit, instruction formats, processor registers, stored program concepts, basic operational concepts like loading and storing data, memory access, and factors that impact performance such as pipelining and instruction set design. The document provides an overview of fundamental computer hardware components and operations.
Hypothetical machine and instruction flow scenariosMunaam Munawar
?
Hypothetical Machine.
Components of hypothetical machine.
Example of hypothetical machine.
Instruction Flow Scenarios.
Data flow fetch cycle.
Data flow indirect cycle.
Data flow interrupt cycle.
Instruction cycle state diagram.
Computer Architecture and Organization.pptxLearnersCoach
?
Computer architecture is the definition of basic attributes of hardware components and their interconnections, in order to achieve certain specified goals in terms of functions and performance. Computer Architecture refers to those attributes of a system that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program. Examples:
- the instruction set
- the number of bits used to represent various data types
- I/O mechanisms
- memory addressing techniques
Read More: https://www.learnerscoach.co.ke/introduction-to-computer-architecture/
Computer organization: the design and physical arrangement of various hardware units to work in tandem, in a orderly manner, in order to achieve the goals specified in the architecture.
Read More: https://www.learnerscoach.co.ke/introduction-to-computer-architecture-part2/
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