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What is an Allophones?
• Allophone is an audibly distinct variant of a phonemes, such as the different
pronunciation of the (t) sound in tar & star.
• It is a sound whilst a phoneme is a set of such sounds.
• It’s usually relatively similar sounds which are in mutually exclusive or
complementary distribution.
• Occasionally allophones selection is not conditioned but may vary from
person to person and occasion to occasion. (free variation)

• Complementary distribution of two phonemes means that the two
phones can never be found in the same environment. If the two
sounds are phonetically similar and they are in the C.D then they
can be assumed to be allophones of the same phonemes.
Ex. In many languages voiced and voiceless stops in the same place
or articulations do not contrast linguistically but are rather two
phonetic realizations of a single phoneme. /p/= /p,b/,/t/’ /t,d/
and /k/= /k,g/

Phonetic similarity
• Allophones must be phonetically similar to each other.
• phonetically similar may vary from language family to language
family.
• Sounds can be phonetically similar from both articulatory and
auditory points of view.
• Ex. /h/ and /c/ are voiceless fricative which are distant in terms
of glottal and palatal place of articulation. But in some other
language such as Japanese it is similar auditorily.

• The following pairs of sounds might be considered to be similar.
• i) two sounds differing only in voicing:
[pb] [td] [kɡ] [ɸβ] [θð] [sz] [ʃʒ] [xɣ] etc...
• ii) two sounds differing in manner of articulation only as plosive
vs fricative. The sibilant or grooved fricatives [s,z,ʃ,ʒ] are excluded
from this category as they are quite different auditorily from the
other ("central") fricatives.
[pɸ] [kx] [bβ] [ɡɣ] etc...

• iii) Any pairs of consonants close in place of articulation and
differing in no other contrastive feature:
[sʃ] [zʒ] [nɲŋ] [lɭ] [lʎ] [mɱ], etc...
• iv) Any other pairs of consonants which are close in articulation
and differ by one other feature but are nevertheless frequently
members of the same phoneme
[lɹ] [cɡ] [tθ] [dð]

phones which are very dissimilar (at least from certain perspectives)
may be felt by native speakers to belong to a single phoneme.
eg
.
Japanese(2) /h/ → [ɸ] before /u/ eg.[ɸuku] "luck"
→ [ç] before /i/ eg.[çito] "man"
→ [h] before /e,a,o/ eg.[hana] "flower"

Complementary distribution
• Complementary distribution is commonly applied to phonology,
where similar phones in complementary distribution are usually
allophones of the same phoneme. For instance, in English, [p]
and [pʰ] are allophones of the phoneme /p/ because they occur
in complementary distribution. [pʰ] always occurs when it is the
syllable onset and followed by a stressed vowel (as in the word
pin). [p] occurs in all other situations (as in the word spin).

• There are cases where elements are in complementary distribution,
but are not considered allophones.
Example: in English [h] and [ŋ] are in complementary distribution,
since [h] only occurs at the beginning of a syllable and [ŋ] only at the
end. But because they have so little in common in phonetic terms
they are still considered separate phonemes.

• Free variation can be found in various dialects of the same
language. In this case, the different pronunciations of words
throughout a country do not change the meaning of those words.

Elements of a paper review
• Title Page
On the title page include the title, your name, and the date. Your instructor may
have additional requirements (such as the course number, etc.) so be sure to
follow the guidelines on the assignment sheet. Professional journals may also
have more specific requirements for the title page.
• Abstract
An abstract is a brief summary of your review. The abstract should include
only the main points of your review. Think of the abstract as a chance for the
reader to preview your paper and decide if they want to read on for the details.

• Introduction
The introduction of your review should accomplish three things:
• Introduce your topic
• State your topic's relevance
• Discussion
- A review paper is not simply a summary of literature you have reviewed. Be
careful not to leave out your own analysis of the ideas presented in the
literature. Synthesize the material from all the works—what are the connections
you see, or the connections you are trying to illustrate, among your readings.
Analyze, Synthesize, Interpret

• Conclusions
Because the conclusions section often gets left for last it is often the weakest
part of a student review paper. It is as crucial a part of the paper as any and
should be treated as such.
• References
Here you report all the works you have cited in your paper. The format for a
references page varies by discipline as does how you should cite your references
within the paper.
http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/page.cfm?pageid=1534&guideid=79

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Allophones

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