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Let’s Ponder:
Put a check in the box next to the statement that is TRUE.
The sun is the center of the solar system.
Asia is the largest continent in the world.
God made the world in seven days.
Man has the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
China’s continued presence in the Spratlys is a violence of international
law.
A person must always consider the interests of his family before his own
happiness.
Citizens have the right to take up arms and overthrow an oppressive
government.
The President has done very little to uphold democracy and look after
the interests of the Filipino people.

1.Were you able to easily judge the
truthfulness of the statements? Why?
2.Which of the statements are obviously
true? Which ones require more thought to
determine their truthfulness?
3.Which of these statements may be true
for others but not in you judgement?
4.Which of these statements do you
personally believe to be true but may be
disputed by other people?

Philosophers often engage with the
concept of truth. The truth lies at the heart
of any inquiry. Knowledge must be truthful
to gain validity and acceptance. But the
concept of truth remains a controversial
and much-discussed topic among
philosophers.
Truth, is a complex concept in philosophy
Philosophers agree that there is no
absolute measure of truth.
There are various views which can help us
tackle the concepts of knowing and truth
and arrive at a reasonable assessment of
whether a statement, idea, or event is

The first concept about truth is rooted in an ancient
Greek philosophy's concept of knowledge as "justified,
true belief." This concept rests on three conditions:
 true things can be known,
 something is true because you believe it to be true,
and
 there is justification for such a belief.
Later philosophers developed more theories on the
nature of knowledge and truth, each providing a basis
for establishing whether a statement or an idea is true.

The correspondence theory states that
something is true if it corresponds to reality or the
actual state of affairs. This theory assumes a
direct relationship between an idea and reality to
be able to take a statement as "fact."

Example:
Mammals are animals that are generally
warm-blooded, have hair, and feed their
young with milk.

Discuss
Manananggal
Terrorizes
Manila
Man Gives Birth
to Twins

The coherence theory proposes that something is true
if it makes sense when placed in a certain situation or
context. Based on this theory, there is a possibility that
there will be varied "truths" from different perspectives.
An idea or statement is true because it makes sense in
its own context and has a certain degree of consistency
that makes it true.

Example:
Muslims have a belief that certain animals, like
pigs, are unclean. For Muslims, this fact prevents
them from eating pork and other types of food
made from unclean animals. The belief that
eating pork will render them unclean makes
sense in the context of Islamic faith.

Coherence and consistency are also
important in the context of law and politics.
Laws make sense if they conform to
previous laws and to a set of general
principles like justice, democracy, and
liberty. Only democratic laws and practices
are accepted as true.

Relativism is a philosophical concept
that contends that there are no absolute
truths. An idea or principle is only true
within a particular context, it differs with
every knowing individual, and thus, it is
possible for alternative truths to exist in
various contexts or situations.

Discuss
Analyze the headline using the coherence theory.
Pope Francis Says Abortion is
in Acceptable Practice for
Catholics

The constructivist theory holds that knowledge
is shaped by social forces and influenced by
culture and history. What is true, or what a
person considers true, is shaped by the
structures within the individual's society and
culture. The constructivist perspective also
believes that knowledge is gained as part of
social experience and requires interaction and
collaboration.

Example:
How different societies consider marriage. In some
societies, marriage is a highly important social
institution. It is not merely a union of individuals
but a merging of families. Such societies assign
high importance to marriage, and this is reflected
in their laws and traditions.
In other countries, particularly in the West,
marriage is viewed as a contract between two
consenting adults, in most cases, such a union
can be nullified through lawful means.

The consensus theory views knowledge as
based on agreement, and something is true
if almost everyone agrees that it is true.
Certain beliefs, traditions, and practices are
often the product of consensus, as they may
be imposed by influential groups or
institutions such as governments or religious
organizations.

Example:
Influencing knowledge is the decision of the
International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 2006 to
change the planet Pluto's classification into a "dwarf
planet." In this instance, the IAU is the recognized
authority with regard to the designation of planets
and other heavenly bodies, and is composed of
professional astronomers and astronomy educators.
This decision, however, was controversial, and a
number of astronomers voiced their opposition to
Pluto's new designation.

The pragmatic theory holds the view that something
is true if we can put it into practice or if it is useful in
real life. It also believes that ideas should be
continually tested to confirm their validity.
Verificationism- considers that ideas must be verified
using the senses or experience the scientific method,
where experiments are designed to test hypotheses
or confirm conclusions is an example of a pragmatic
approach to determining truth.

Example:
The pragmatic theory was used in the study of yellow
fever during the late 19th century. This disease was first
thought to be transmitted through the air. This idea was
refuted in 1886 by Dr. Carlos Finlay, a Cuban doctor.
Based on his examination of tissue samples from victims,
Finlay believed that the disease affected the blood and
that mosquitoes were its carriers.

Example:
In 1898, during the Spanish- American War, many
American soldiers died from yellow fever, and a team of
army doctors was sent to Cuba to investigate the disease.
One of the members of the team, Dr. Jesse Lazear, heard
of Finlay's theory and decided to test it. He had
mosquitoes hatch and feed on blood samples infected with
yellow fever. Then he had himself and other volunteers get
bitten by the mosquitoes. Lazear and the volunteers
developed symptoms of yellow fever, definitively proving
that mosquitoes were indeed the carriers of the disease.

What other things should we consider in
determining the truth?
Ideas and claims are often presented in the form of
arguments.
A number of arguments may be based on faulty
argumentation, and these are called fallacies.
Fallacies or errors in reasoning may be intentional, as
the person making the claim is desperate to convince
you to accept his or her argument.

Fallacy Characteristics Example
Ad hominem Attacking the person
making the argument
instead of the argument
itself
“Of course, he believes
that the government is
flawed. He is a rebel and a
Communist!”
Appeal to force Using the threat of force
or an undesirable event to
advance an argument
“If this peace agreement
will not be signed by the
government, then we will
have no recourse but to go
to war.”
Appeal to emotion Using emotions such as
pity or sympathy
“All these charges are
baseless; this is just plain
harassment. Can’t you see
how this is affecting my
family?”

Appeal to the popular The idea is presented as
acceptable because a lot
of people accept it
“Every boy your age
already has a girlfriend,
you should go and find
one!”
Appeal to tradition The idea is acceptable
because it has been true
for a long time
“Marriage should be
between a man and a
woman. It has been so for
a long time in this country;
it should remain so today
and in the future.”
Begging the question Assuming the thing or idea
to be proven is true; also
known as “circular
argument”
“I have a right to free
speech, therefore, you
cannot stop me from
talking.”

Cause-and-effect Assuming a “cause-and-
effect” relationship
between unrelated events
“Ever since you bought
that sweater, everything
has been going wrong in
your life. You should get
rid of it.”
Fallacy of composition Assuming that what is true
for a part is true for the
whole
“These cases of robberies
in this district have
convinced me that the city
has become a den of
thieves and criminals.”
Fallacy of division Assuming that what is true
for the whole is true for its
parts
“You come from a family
of doctors and
intellectuals! Surely you
can do better in this
course!.”

Facts- generally established truths that are verifiable
and do not easily change from one situation to
another.
Opinions- are more subjective and may express
certain views and beliefs.
Biases- are not necessarily errors in reasoning, but
refer to tendencies or influences that affect people’s
views.

Bias Characteristics Example
Correspondence bias or
attribution effect
Tendency to judge a person’s
personality by his or her
actions, without regard for
external factors or influences
“These soldiers who fought in
the war are all bloodthirsty
murderers!”
Confirmation bias Tendency to look for and
readily accept information
that fits with one’s own
beliefs or views and to reject
ideas or views that go against
it
“How can I accept his view
that there is no God? I am a
Christian!”
Framing Focusing on a certain aspect
of a problem while ignoring
other aspects
“Preliminary evidence has
still not pointed out the
actual cause of the plane
crash, but investigators are
currently focusing on the
possibility of pilot error.”

Hindsight The tendency to see past
events as predictable, or to
ascribe a pattern to
historical events
“Magellan’s assault on
Mactan Island was a
foolhardy venture, made
by an overconfident,
careless man who
underestimated the valor
of the native Filipinos.”
Conflict of interest A person or group is
connected to or has a
vested interest in the issue
being discussed
“As the daughter of the
accused, I believe I have
the right to express my
opinion on the issue of his
alleged corrupt practices.

Cultural Bias Analyzing an event
or issue based on
one’s cultural
standards
“I do not agree with
the Western
practice of placing
aged parents in
retirement home.
We Filipinos take
care of our family
members.”

Bias cannot be avoided in any
discussion or debate. What is
important is that the people engaging
in the discussion are aware of their
personal biases and have an open
but critical attitude toward other views
which conflict with their own.

How can philosophy help us in attaining perspective of
things?
Holistic perspective views things in its entirety. This means
that something is viewed, understood, and determined as a
whole and not only by its parts. This perspective follows the
principle that the whole is more than the sum of its parts. It is
similar to the idea of "looking at the bigger or general picture.“
A partial perspective views things based on the parts of a
whole. This means that one focuses on the specifics rather
than the general idea. If something is viewed only by its parts
and understood to be true, then one commits the fallacy of
composition.

Review!!!!!
 The concept of truth is a significant but often-debated
concept in philosophy. Though it is difficult to establish an
absolute measure of truth, there are perspectives that can
help us analyze knowledge and determine truth.
 The correspondence theory of knowledge states that
something is true if it corresponds to what actually exists in
reality.
 The coherence theory states that the truth of an idea
depends on its context or situation. It is also important for
an idea to be consistent with other related information
within its context for it to be considered true

Review!!!!!
 The constructivist theory considers the influence of social
forces, culture, and history in shaping, truth Knowledge is
gained through social interaction, and what is true may
possibly change due to social and historical developments.
 The consensus theory considers knowledge as based on
agreement, and that something is true if it is believed to be
true by a significant number of people.
 The pragmatic theory tests the truth of an idea by applying
it in real life. This view uses tests and experiments to verify
the truth.

Review!!!!!
 Many ideas or claims are presented in the form of
arguments. In determining the truth of these arguments,
one must be able to identify arguments with faulty
reasoning or fallacies.
 Opinions are subjective statements that are influenced by
bias. Bias refers to tendencies or influences that affect
how people view and interpret ideas.
 A holistic perspective views statements or situations as a
whole and is similar to "looking at the larger picture. A
partial perspective, meanwhile, focuses on aspects or
parts, analyzing specifics rather than the general idea.

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philosophy LESSON 3 ( DETERMINING TRUTH).pptx

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