ШинжилгээМони ГошаThis document provides an overview of different types of financial statement analysis:
- Comparative analysis evaluates trends over time through year-to-year changes and index numbers.
- Common-size analysis evaluates proportions through assets, liabilities, revenues, and expenses as a percentage of the total.
- Ratio analysis evaluates relationships between items and is a starting point for further analysis.
- Valuation estimates the intrinsic value of companies or stocks using present value theory and models like free cash flow or residual income.
- Debt valuation uses the bond pricing formula, while equity valuation uses dividend discount or free cash flow models.
- Market efficiency assumes prices reflect all public and private information in different forms. Analysis also has uses beyond market
Newsletter slideshowFPriolaThe document outlines a project-based learning activity where students will create and run their own business. They will generate business ideas, assign roles and responsibilities, and learn key economic concepts like supply and demand. The goals are for students to practice collaboration, mathematical skills like adding and subtracting money amounts, and to understand real-world business operations. Standards around writing money amounts, adding and subtracting with regrouping, and international trade patterns will be addressed.
6. DAILY RESETTLEMENT: AN
EXAMPLE
Хэрвээ маргааш фьючерсийн ханш $1 = ¥149 гэж хаагдвал, таны
позицийн үнэ буурна.
Таны гэрээ ¥12,500,000 р зарагдсан бөгөөд $83,333.33 хүлээн авна.
Гэвч одоо ¥12,500,000 ийн үнэ цэнэ $83,892.62 болсон.
$1
$83,892.62 = ¥12,500,000 ×
¥149
Та шөнийн дотор $559.28 г алдсан.
7. DAILY RESETTLEMENT: AN
EXAMPLE
$559.28 нь таны маржин дансны $3,333.33-аас хасагдаж, $2,774.05 –
г үлдээнэ.
Өнөөдрийн шинэ ханшаар $3,355.70 маржин дансанд байх
шаардлагатай болно.
$1
$3,355.70 = .04 × ¥12,500,000 ×
¥149
Таны брокер will let you slide until you run
through your maintenance margin. Then you must
post additional funds or your position will be closed
out. This is usually done with a reversing trade.
8. ВАЛЮТЫН ФЬЮЧЕРСИЙН
ЗАХ ЗЭЭЛ
Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) нь хамгийн том зах зээл юм.
Бусад:
The Philadelphia Board of Trade (PBOT)
The MidAmerica commodities Exchange
The Tokyo International Financial Futures Exchange
The London International Financial Futures Exchange
Дуусах хугацааны цикл: 3,6,9,11-р сар
Хэрэгжих өдөр: Гэрээт сарын 3 дахь Лхагва гаригийн
Арилжааны сүүлийн өдөр: хэрэгжих өдрийн өмнөх ажлын 2 дахь өдөр.
CME цагийн хуваарь: өглөөний 7 цагаас өдрийн 12 цаг хүртэл
9. CME AFTER HOURS
GLOBEX арилжааны хугацаа 2:30 p.m. -c 4:00 p.m
хүртэл үргэлжлээд завсарласны дараа 6:00-c
6:00 a.m. хүртэл үргэлжилнэ. CST.
Singapore International Monetary Exchange
(SIMEX) offer interchangeable contracts.
There’s other markets, but none are close to CME
and SIMEX trading volume.
10. BASIC CURRENCY
FUTURES RELATIONSHIPS
Нээлтийн ханш нь тухайн арилжаа явагдах сард
бүртгэгдсэн байгаа гэрээний тоо юм.
Нээлтийн ханш нь тухайн гэрээ хир эрэлттэй
байгааг харуулдаг.
Мөн тухайн зах зээлийн depth буюу өргөнийг
харуулна. The breadth of the market would be
how many different contracts (expiry month,
currency) are outstanding.
11. READING A FUTURES
QUOTE
Open Hi Lo Settle Change Lifetime Lifetime Open
High Low Interest
Sept .9282 .9325 .9276 .9309 +.0027 1.2085 .8636 74,639
Өдөр бүрийн Гэрээний
Хаалтынөөрчлөлт хүчинтэй
ханш хугацаандахь
Тухайн өдрийн хамгийн
хамгийн дээд
доод үнэ
болон доод үнэ
Тухайн өдрийн хамгийн дээд ханш
Нээлтийн ханш
Дуусах сар Арилжаа эхлэх үеийн
гэрээний тоо
17. OPTIONS CONTRACTS:
PRELIMINARIES
European vs. American options
Худалдан авагч опцион хэрэгжих өдөр
худалдах эсэх эсвэл зах зээлийн ханш өөрт нь
ашигтай байвал татгалзах эрхтэй байвал европ
опцион гэнэ.
Худалдагч тохирсон хугацааны дотор опционыг
хэрэгжүүлэх эрхтэй байвал америк опцион
гэнэ.
Since this option to exercise early generally has
value, American options are usually worth more
than European options, other things equal.
18. In-th e -m one y
Îïöèîíûã àøèãëàí ¿éë àæèëëàãàà ÿâóóëàõ ¿åä ýçýìøèã÷èäýý àøèãòàé
áàéãàà òîõèîëäîëä ¿¿íèéã in the money áóþó áàÿæèõ ãýæ
òîäîðõîéëäîã. Худалдан авах опшиний хувьд спот ханш нь тухай
опшиний тохирсон ханшаас дээгүүр байх бол худалдах опшиний
хувьд спот ханш нь доогуур байдаг.
O u t-th e -m one y
Õ àðèí àøèãã¿é òîõèîëäîëä out of the money áóþó ÿäóó áîëîõ õýìýýí
íýðëýäýã. Өөрөөр хэлбэл спот ханш нь тухайн опшины тохирсон
үнээс бага байвал худалдан авах опшинг ашиггүй буюу O u t-th e -
m one y гэж нэрлэдэг.
At-th e -m one y
Õ àðèí õºðºíãèéí ¿íý áîëîí õýðýãæ¿¿ëýõ ¿íý õî¸ð òýíö¿¿ òîõèîëäîëä, îïöèîí íü
ÿã ºðòºãòºº áàéíà ãýñýí ¿ã. Өөрөөр хэлбэл тохирсон ханш болон
спот ханш нь ижил гэсэн үг юм.
19. ОПЦИОН ГЭРЭЭ:
Intrinsic Value (Суурь өртөг)
Арилжаалж буй активын спот ханш болон опционы жишиг үнийн
зөрүү.
Speculative Value (Таамагласан өртөг)
Оption premium болон суурь өртөгийн хоорондох зөрүү
Option Intrinsic + Speculative
=
Premium Value Value
21. PHLX CURRENCY OPTION
SPECIFICATIONS
Currency Contract Size Mid - month Month - end Long term
E,A
Australian dollar AD50,000 E,A Not traded
E,A E,A
British pound £31,250 E
E,A E,A Not traded
Canadian dollar CD50,000
¥6,250,00 E,A
Japanese yen 0 E,A E
E,A Not traded
Swiss franc SF62,500 E,A
E,A Not traded
Euro EU62,500 E,A
22. CURRENCY FUTURES
OPTIONS
Are an option on a currency futures contract.
Exercise of a currency futures option results in a long
futures position for the holder of a call or the writer of a
put.
Exercise of a currency futures option results in a short
futures position for the seller of a call or the buyer of a
put.
If the futures position is not offset prior to its expiration,
foreign currency will change hands.
23. BASIC OPTION PRICING
RELATIONSHIPS AT EXPIRY
At expiry, an American call option is worth the
same as a European option with the same
characteristics.
If the call is in-the-money, it is worth ST – E.
If the call is out-of-the-money, it is worthless.
CaT = CeT = Max[ST - E, 0]
24. BASIC OPTION PRICING
RELATIONSHIPS AT EXPIRY
At expiry, an American put option is worth the
same as a European option with the same
characteristics.
If the put is in-the-money, it is worth E - ST.
If the put is out-of-the-money, it is worthless.
PaT = PeT = Max[E - ST, 0]
25. BASIC OPTION PROFIT
PROFILES
CaT = CeT = Max[ST - E, 0]
l
profit 1 cal
L ong
ST
E+C
E
loss
26. BASIC OPTION PROFIT
PROFILES
CaT = CeT = Max[ST - E, 0]
profit
E sh o ST
E+C rt 1
cal
l
loss
27. BASIC OPTION PROFIT
PROFILES
PaT = PeT = Max[E - ST, 0]
profit
lon
g1
pu
t
ST
E-p
E
loss
28. BASIC OPTION PROFIT
PROFILES
CaT = CeT = Max[ST - E, 0]
profit
1 put ST
Sh ort E-p E
loss
29. AMERICAN OPTION PRICING
RELATIONSHIPS
With an American option, you can do everything
that you can do with a European option—this
option to exercise early has value.
CaT > CeT = Max[ST - E, 0]
PaT > PeT = Max[E - ST, 0]
30. MARKET VALUE, TIME
VALUE AND INTRINSIC
VALUE FOR AN AMERICAN
CALL
CaT > Max[ST - E, 0]
Profit
-E
ST
Market Value
Time value
Intrinsic value
E ST
Out-of-the-money In-the-money
loss
31. EUROPEAN OPTION
PRICING RELATIONSHIPS
Consider two investments
Buy a call option on the British pound futures contract. The cash flow
today is -Ce
Replicate the upside payoff of the call by
Borrowing the present value of the exercise price of the call in the U.S.
at i$ The cash flow today is E /(1 + i$)
Lending the present value of ST at i£ The cash flow is
- ST /(1 + i£)
32. EUROPEAN OPTION
PRICING RELATIONSHIPS
When the option is in-the-money
both strategies have the same
payoff.
When the option is out-of-the-
money it has a higher payoff
ST
E
Ce ≥ max borrowing and lending
the − ,0
strategy.£ ) (1 + i$ )
(1 + i
Thus:
33. EUROPEAN OPTION
PRICING RELATIONSHIPS
Using a similar portfolio to replicate
the upside potential of a put, we
can show that:
E ST
Pe ≥ max − ,0
(1 + i$ ) (1 + i£ )
34. BINOMIAL OPTION PRICING
MODEL
Imagine a simple world where the dollar-euro
exchange rate is S0($/ ) = $1 today and in the
next year, S1($/ ) is either $1.1 or $.90.
S0($/ ) S1($/ )
$1.10
$1
$.90
35. BINOMIAL OPTION PRICING
MODEL
A call option on the euro with exercise price
S0($/ ) = $1 will have the following payoffs.
S0($/ ) S1($/ ) C1($/ )
$1.10 $.10
$1
$.90 $0
36. BINOMIAL OPTION PRICING
MODEL
We can replicate the payoffs of the call option.
With a levered position in the euro.
S0($/ ) S1($/ ) C1($/ )
$1.10 $.10
$1
$.90 $0
37. BINOMIAL OPTION PRICING
MODEL
Borrow the present value of $.90 today and buy 1.
Your net payoff in one period is either $.2 or $0.
S0($/ ) S1($/ ) debt portfolio C1($/ )
$1.10 -$.90 $.20 $.10
$1
$.90 -$.90 $.00 $0
38. BINOMIAL OPTION PRICING
MODEL
The portfolio has twice the option’s payoff so the
portfolio is worth twice the call option value.
S0($/ ) S1($/ ) debt portfolio C1($/ )
$1.10 -$.90 $.20 $.10
$1
$.90 -$.90 $.00 $0
39. BINOMIAL OPTION PRICING
MODEL
The portfolio value today is today’s value $.90
of one euro less the present value of a $1 −
(1 + i$ )
$.90 debt:
S0($/ ) S1($/ ) debt portfolio C1($/ )
$1.10 -$.90 $.20 $.10
$1
$.90 -$.90 $.00 $0
40. BINOMIAL OPTION PRICING
MODEL
We can value the option as half of the value of
the portfolio: 1 $.90
C 0 = $1 −
2 (1 + i$ )
S0($/ ) S1($/ ) debt portfolio C1($/ )
$1.10 -$.90 $.20 $.10
$1
$.90 -$.90 $.00 $0
41. BINOMIAL OPTION PRICING
MODEL
The most important lesson from the binomial option pricing model is:
the replicating portfolio intuition.
Many derivative securities can be valued by
valuing portfolios of primitive securities when
those portfolios have the same payoffs as the
derivative securities.
42. EUROPEAN OPTION
PRICING FORMULA
We can use the replicating portfolio intuition
developed in the binomial option pricing formula to
generate a faster-to-use model that addresses a
much more realistic world.
43. EUROPEAN OPTION
PRICING FORMULA
The model is C0 = [ F × N (d1 ) − E × N (d 2 )]e − r$T
Where
C0 = the value of a European option at time t = 0
F = St e ( r$ − r£ )T
r$ = the interest rate available in the U.S.
r£ = the interest rate available in the foreign country—in
this case the U.K.
ln( F / E ) + .5σ 2T
d1 = , d 2 = d1 − σ T
σ T
44. EUROPEAN OPTION
PRICING FORMULA
Find the value of a six-month call option on the British pound with an
exercise price of $1.50 = £1
The current value of a pound is $1.60
The interest rate available in the U.S. is r$ = 5%.
The interest rate in the U.K. is r£ = 7%.
The option maturity is 6 months (half of a year).
The volatility of the $/£ exchange rate is 30% p.a.
Before we start, note that the intrinsic value of the option is $.10—our
answer must be at least that.
45. EUROPEAN OPTION
PRICING FORMULA
Let’s try our hand at using the model. If you have a
calculator handy, follow along.
First calculate
F = St e ( r$ − r£ )T = 1.50e (.05−.07 ) 0.50 = 1.485075
Then, calculate d1 and d2
ln( F / E ) + .5σ 2T ln(1.485075 / 1.50) + .5(0.4) 2 .5
d1 = = = 0.106066
σ T .4 .5
d 2 = d1 − σ T = 0.106066 − .4 .5 = −0.176878
46. EUROPEAN OPTION
PRICING FORMULA
F = 1.485075
d1 = 0.106066
d 2 = −0.176878
N(d1) = N(0.106066) = .5422
N(d2) = N(-0.1768) = 0.4298
C0 = [ F × N (d1 ) − E × N (d 2 )]e − r$T
C0 = [1.485075 × .5422 − 1.50 × .4298]e −.05*.5 = $0.157
47. OPTION VALUE
DETERMINANTS
Call Put
1. Exchange rate + –
2. Exercise price – +
3. Interest rate in U.S. + –
4. Interest rate in other country + –
5. Variability in exchange rate + +
6. Expiration date + +
The value of a call option C0 must fall within
max (S0 – E, 0) < C0 < S0.
The precise position will depend on the above factors.
48. EMPIRICAL TESTS
The European option pricing model works fairly well in
pricing American currency options.
It works best for out-of-the-money and at-the-money
options.
When options are in-the-money, the European option
pricing model tends to underprice American
options.