The document introduces hypothesis-driven thinking. It discusses that hypothesis-driven thinking is a way of thinking about the overall framework and conclusions of a problem with limited information and time. Hypothesis-driven thinking is similar to abduction, which forces oneself to think about the possible causes of a problem. It emphasizes building hypotheses first before experiments to verify hypotheses. Seeing the overall picture is important for taking action.
The document introduces hypothesis-driven thinking. It discusses that hypothesis-driven thinking is a way of thinking about the overall framework and conclusions of a problem with limited information and time. Hypothesis-driven thinking is similar to abduction, which forces oneself to think about the possible causes of a problem. It emphasizes building hypotheses first before experiments to verify hypotheses. Seeing the overall picture is important for taking action.
12. 障礙研究:理論與政策應用22
障礙不再是屬於個人或各障別的單一問題。
(四)1975年,國會通過「全體障礙兒童教育法」(Education for All
Handicapped Children Act),法案從權利觀點出發,不再視障
礙者為需要受照顧的角色,而是轉為積極保護障礙者接受教育
的平等權利。
1970年代,羅伯(Ed. Robert)等人發起自立生活運動(Independent
living movement, ILM),他們重新定義「自立」的概念,認為現代社會精
細分工之下,障礙者與一般人無異,都需要支持或幫忙,只是被支持的條
件有所不同。由於障礙者被就業市場排擠,他們要達到一般人的自立基礎
十分困難。因此有必要透過社會制度的經濟支援、津貼,以輔助障礙者的
經濟安全,這是自立生活的重要概念。進一步協助障礙者透過輔具、制度
和他人協助完成生活所需,這是自立生活運動所訴求的主耍目標。
1970年代,英國肢體損傷者反隔離聯盟(The Union of the Physically
Impaired Against Segregation, UPIAS)提出「社會模式觀點的障礙」(Social
Model of Disability,簡稱社會模式)做為倡議論述。UPIAS是由Paul Hunt
召集障礙者共同組成面對障礙議題的團體,致力於使障礙者擁有更多權
利掌控自己的生活。社會模式主張,「身體機能或肢體有缺損」的損傷
(impairment)與「社會形塑」的障礙(disability)是有所差異的。社會
模式的觀點認為障礙是社會結構或制度加諸給障礙者的限制,使得障礙者
不能和一般人一樣生活。這樣的論點也進一步影響聯合國世界衛生組織
(World Health Organization, WHO)2001年公布的國際健康功能與身心障
礙分類系統(International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health,
ICF)。
1968年,挪威智能障礙者家長會議中,也提出智能障礙者的自我倡議
主張。過去往往是從家長、專家的位置為障礙者發聲,開始轉向智能障礙
者的自我倡議,這是後來「以人為優先的運動」(People First Movement)
的開端,也影響歐美各地家長協會對智能障礙者自我倡議的重視。1974
16. 障礙研究:理論與政策應用26
的。3
」(Shapiro, 1994)這說出了過去要把障礙者治癒、成為「正常人」
的無奈,以及障礙者集結後重新肯定自己的障礙身分,邁向障礙文化的可
能。
這樣的論述可以說是受1970年代的障礙者運動風潮影響的結果。在
1970年代之後,障礙者的文化、以障礙為傲(disability pride)、障礙者的
藝術(disability art)逐漸在世界各地、不同領域中展開。自立生活運動
的倡議者布朗(Steven Brown)更創立障礙文化中心,認為障礙文化是:
「障礙者已經形成群體的認同。我們共享受壓迫的歷史以及抵抗的歷史。
從我們與障礙共存的生命經驗中,我們產生藝術、音樂、文學以及其他表
現我們的生活方式與文化的展現方式。更重要的是,我們以身為障礙者為
榮。我們驕傲的宣稱障礙是我們認同的一部分。我們知道我們是誰,我
們是障礙者。」(Brown, 1996)而障礙者的集結與聯合也進一步的推動
了1990年美國障礙公民法(Americans with Disabilities Act, ADA),號稱全
世界最先進的障礙者權利保障法案。在障礙文化的框架之下,聾人文化
的倡議者指出,聾不是一種障礙,是一種文化,聾人是被壓迫的使用手
語的少數族群。聾人文化的倡議者更進一步,使用英文大寫的 “Deaf” 指
稱認同聾人文化的聾人,以此和被社會標籤、歸類的 “deaf” 作區別(林
旭,2005)。他們自稱聾人,而非聽障者,主張美國手語American Sign
Language(ASL)是一種語言。1986年改編自百老匯舞台劇的電影《悲憫
上帝的女兒》(Child of a Lesser God),可以說是開始從多元文化的觀點看
聾人文化的電影,細緻的處理聽人文化和聾人主體性的衝突。而聾人的女
主角瑪特琳(Marlee Matlin)也因這部電影贏得美國奧斯卡金像獎和金球
獎最佳女主角。1988年美國著名的高立德聾人學校(Gallaudet University)
3
I used to know what I would wish for. I wanted to be beautiful. I wanted to stop being a
cripple. But now I am beautiful. We all felt beautiful. We all felt powerful. It didn’t matter if
you were mentally retarded, blind or deaf. Everybody who came out felt, We are beautiful, we
are powerful, we are strong, we are important.(Shapiro, 1994: 69)
28. 障礙研究:理論與政策應用38
延伸閱讀
1. 林旭(2005)。《寂靜之外:Beyond Silence》。台北:左岸文化。
2. 邱大昕(2009)。〈被忽略的歷史事實:從視障者工作演變看大
法官釋字第六四九號解釋〉。《社會政策與社會工作學刊》,
13(2),55-86。
3. 張恆豪(2006)。〈男孩、女孩:早期療育之外的障礙論述與意識
形態〉。《文化研究月報》,59。網址:http://www.cc.ncu.edu.tw/-
csa/journal/59/journal_park451.htm。
4. 張恆豪、蘇峰山,2009,〈戰後臺灣國小教科書中的障礙者意象分
析〉。《臺灣社會學刊》,42,143-188。
5. Yi, Chun-Shan, Sandie. (2010). From Imperfect to I Am Perfect:
Reclaiming the Disabled Body Through Making Body Adornments in
Art Therapy. In C. H. Moon (ed.), Materials and Media in Art Therapy:
Critical Understanding of Diverse Artistic Vocabularies (pp. 103-117). New
York, NY: Routledge.
相關網站與影音資料
1. 悲憐上帝的女兒:Azenberg, E. (Producer) & Haines, R. (Director).
(1986). Children Of A Lesser God [Motion picture]. US: Paramount
Pictures.
2. 聽見天堂: Bortone, C. (Producer) & Bortone, C. (Director). (2006).
Rosso come il cielo [Motion picture]. Italy: Orisa Produzioni.
3. 障礙文化:http://www.independentliving.org/newsletter/12-01.html
4. It’s our stories: https://sites.google.com/a/pinedafoundation.org/ios/
5. 障礙藝術:http://cripcouture.org/3/artist.asp?ArtistID=33180&Akey=56
CFLP9D
29. 西方社会障碍歷史与文化 391
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