This document describes a case study of a limbal dermoid, a benign congenital tumor containing abnormal tissue found at the cornea. It summarizes the presentation, examination, and surgical removal of a limbal dermoid in a 30-year-old male patient. The dermoid was removed through local anesthesia and histopathological examination confirmed the diagnosis. While the surgery improved symptoms, there was little change in vision due to preexisting amblyopia and astigmatism. Limbal dermoids are generally classified based on their size and depth of involvement in the eye. Surgical techniques range from simple excision to more extensive procedures depending on the grade of the dermoid.
Mooren's ulcer is a rare autoimmune condition characterized by a chronic, painful peripheral corneal ulcer. It is more common in males and older individuals. Treatment involves a stepwise approach starting with topical steroids, then conjunctival resection to remove inflammatory cells, followed by systemic immunosuppressants if needed. Later stages may require additional surgeries like lamellar keratectomy or keratoplasty to promote healing and rehabilitation of the cornea. The goals are to arrest the destructive process and promote reepithelialization of the corneal surface.
This document discusses optic disc changes in glaucoma. It defines key terms like optic nerve head and lamina cribrosa. It describes physiological cupping and normal cup-to-disc ratios. Pathogenesis of optic nerve head changes in glaucoma involves mechanical effects of increased intraocular pressure and vascular effects of ischemia. Signs suggestive of glaucoma include increased cup size, asymmetry between eyes, thinning of the neuroretinal rim, notches, splinter hemorrhages, and retinal nerve fiber layer defects preceding other changes. Advanced glaucoma shows total cupping and bending of retinal vessels at the disc margin.
1. Differential diagnosis of disc edema includes conditions like papilledema, optic neuritis, ischemic optic neuropathy, diabetic papillopathy, and hypertensive retinopathy.
2. Papilledema is caused by increased intracranial pressure and presents with bilateral disc swelling and normal vision, while optic neuritis typically causes unilateral vision loss and eye pain.
3. Diabetic papillopathy presents as transient unilateral or bilateral disc edema that resolves within months without vision loss, while malignant hypertension can lead to bilateral disc edema and vision changes as part of hypertensive retinopathy.
This document provides an overview of different types of corneal dystrophies, including their classification, clinical features, histopathology, and management. It discusses epithelial and subepithelial dystrophies, corneal dystrophies of Bowman's layer, stromal corneal dystrophies, and Descemet membrane and endothelial dystrophies. The key points are that corneal dystrophies are inherited, bilateral, and slowly progressive disorders that begin early in life and are characterized by corneal opacification without relationship to environmental factors. Diagnosis involves classification based on the anatomical layer affected and treatment typically involves managing symptoms although surgery may be needed if vision is impaired.
- Three cases of bilateral corneal opacities are presented
- All cases show central corneal opacity without signs of inflammation or vascularization
- This suggests a diagnosis of corneal dystrophy, which is a hereditary condition causing bilateral corneal opacity that is non-inflammatory in nature
- Corneal dystrophy can be classified anatomically based on the layer of the cornea involved, or by the new IC3D classification system which integrates phenotype, pathology, and genetics
The document discusses the history and development of gonioscopy. It notes that gonioscopy was first visualized by Alexois Trantas in 1907 and Maximilian Salsmann in 1914 is considered the father of gonioscopy. It describes improvements to contact lenses and development of gonioprisms by Koeppe, Uribe Troncoso, Barkan, and Goldmann. The document provides details on various gonioscopy lenses and their uses. It discusses the advantages and disadvantages of direct vs indirect gonioscopy and classifications used to grade the iridocorneal angle.
Ischemic condition affecting the eye.
The ischemia can occur secondary to systemically problem [or] particulary the eye.
Many retinal vascular disorders {like CRAO,CRVO,Diabetic retinopathy,Hypertensive Retinopathy} shows ischemic signs.
This document discusses corneal ulcers, including their definition, causes, microbiology, pathogenesis, stages, grading, symptoms, clinical examination, investigations, treatment, and complications. Key points include:
- Corneal ulcers are tissue excavations associated with epithelial defects, edema, infiltration and necrosis. They are usually caused by injury or foreign materials that allow microbial infection.
- Common microbes include bacteria (e.g. streptococcus, pseudomonas), fungi (e.g. candida, fusarium), protozoa (e.g. acanthamoeba), and viruses (e.g. herpes).
- Treatment involves local and systemic antibiotics, antifungals, or antiv
Pseudoexfoliation syndrome is a systemic condition characterized by grey-white fibrillar deposits that can lead to open-angle glaucoma. It involves the trabecular meshwork, lens, ciliary body and other ocular tissues, and is a major risk factor for glaucoma. Treatment involves managing elevated intraocular pressure through medications, laser trabeculoplasty, trabeculectomy or cataract surgery due to the increased risk of complications from zonular weakness.
This document provides information on anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (AION), which is the most common cause of acute optic neuropathy in older age groups. It can be divided into two types: arteritic AION, which is due to giant cell arteritis; and non-arteritic AION, which makes up most cases. Both types present with sudden painless vision loss and optic disc swelling. Arteritic AION carries a worse prognosis and requires high-dose steroid treatment to prevent loss of vision in the fellow eye. Non-arteritic AION has a variable course but generally a poor rate of recovery without any proven effective treatments.
1) Lacrimal gland tumors are rare, representing only 5-18% of orbital lesions, with an incidence of 1 per million people per year. They commonly affect the elderly.
2) The main types of lacrimal gland tumors are epithelial tumors such as pleomorphic adenoma (50% of epithelial tumors) and adenoid cystic carcinoma (50% of malignant tumors).
3) Pleomorphic adenomas typically present as a painless, slowly progressive mass in the lacrimal gland fossa and are usually treated with complete surgical excision. Adenoid cystic carcinomas have a high morbidity and mortality and often involve perineural spread.
1. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) uses light interferometry to perform high-resolution, cross-sectional imaging of the retina. It provides quantitative measurements of retinal nerve fiber layer thickness.
2. OCT images are analyzed to detect structural changes in the optic nerve head and retinal nerve fiber layer that can indicate glaucoma, often before visual field defects appear. Parameters like retinal nerve fiber layer thickness, cup-to-disc ratio, and nerve fiber layer deviation maps are used to diagnose and monitor glaucoma progression.
3. Macular ganglion cell complex thickness, which includes the retinal nerve fiber layer, ganglion cell layer, and inner plexiform layer, can also detect early glaucomatous loss
Corneal dystrophy is a group of inherited bilateral corneal conditions characterized by progressive corneal opacity. There are several classifications of corneal dystrophy based on the layer of the cornea affected, including epithelial dystrophy affecting the epithelium and basement membrane, Bowman's layer dystrophy, stromal dystrophy affecting the stroma, and Descemet's membrane and endothelial dystrophy affecting the inner layers. Diagnosis involves slit lamp examination to determine the opacity pattern, location, and characteristics in direct and retroillumination. Treatment depends on the severity and type but may include lubricants, therapeutic contact lenses, corneal transplantation, or newer procedures like DSAEK.
Retinitis pigmentosa is a group of hereditary retinal diseases characterized by progressive degeneration of photoreceptors. It begins with night blindness and peripheral vision loss and can progress to tunnel vision or legal blindness. Genetic mutations affecting photoreceptor structure and function or RNA splicing are responsible. On examination, bone spicule pigmentation, vascular attenuation, optic nerve pallor and RPE changes are seen. Diagnosis is confirmed by electroretinography showing photoreceptor dysfunction. There is currently no cure but management focuses on low vision aids, vitamins, and gene or stem cell therapies which are under investigation.
The document discusses the angle of the anterior chamber and aqueous humor dynamics. It covers the anatomy and development of the angle, diagnostic methods for examining the angle like gonioscopy, and grading scales for the angle. It also discusses the production and drainage of aqueous humor, including the roles of the ciliary body and processes, trabecular meshwork, and collector channels. Key functions of the aqueous humor include maintaining eye pressure and providing nutrients to ocular tissues.
This document discusses several conditions that can mimic anterior or posterior uveitis, including intraocular lymphoma, retinoblastoma, uveal melanoma, leukemias, and juvenile xanthogranuloma. It provides details on the presentation, diagnosis, classification, and treatment of these conditions. Primary intraocular lymphoma often involves infiltration of the retina and optic nerve in patients over 50 years old. Retinoblastoma is the most common primary intraocular malignancy in children and can present as leucocoria, strabismus, or glaucoma. Uveal melanoma, leukemias, and juvenile xanthogranuloma can also involve the eye and be misdiagnosed as uveitis.
Most retinal surgeons are trained to create formal retinal drawings of the fundus.
Retinal drawings are useful to document pathology, although more and more people now prefer fundus photographs.
Can be used for serial follow up of patients to document changes in the pathology.
Macular hole is a defect in the macula involving its full thickness. It was first described in 1869. Idiopathic macular holes are the most common type and affect people over age 55. Staging of macular holes ranges from stage 1 to 4 based on size and pathology. Symptoms include decreased vision and metamorphopsia. Diagnosis involves examination, OCT, and sometimes FA. Treatment is usually vitrectomy surgery for stages 2-4 to relieve traction on the macula. Prognosis depends on pre-op vision and hole size/duration, with most patients gaining vision after surgery.
This document provides information on tumors of the eyelids, including their classification, anatomical considerations, and management. It discusses benign and malignant tumors, describing key features such as appearance, histopathology, and treatment for various tumor types, including seborrheic keratosis, keratoacanthoma, nevi, basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma. It outlines the importance of biopsy for diagnosis and discusses surgical excision, Mohs micrographic surgery, radiotherapy, and cryotherapy as main treatment approaches.
This document discusses the evaluation of ptosis, or drooping of the eyelids. It begins by defining ptosis and distinguishing between true and pseudo ptosis. True ptosis is classified as acquired or congenital, with acquired further divided into neurogenic, myogenic, aponeurotic, and mechanical types. The evaluation of ptosis involves a thorough history, measurement of margin-reflex distance, palpebral fissure height, levator function, and upper lid crease. Additional tests include assessing for fatigability, Cogan's twitch sign, and jaw winking phenomenon. Confirmatory tests include the ice test and edrophonium (Tensilon) test. Treatment options mentioned include eyelid
The document discusses corneal hydration and edema. It begins by explaining that the cornea's water content is normally around 78% to maintain transparency. Corneal edema occurs when water content increases above this level. Factors that influence corneal hydration are then described, including stromal swelling pressure, intraocular pressure, and the sodium-potassium pump in the endothelium. Causes of corneal edema are outlined as either primary, such as endothelial dystrophies, or secondary due to trauma, glaucoma, contact lenses or metabolic disorders. Symptoms, evaluation and management of corneal edema are also summarized.
This document defines corneal vascularization as the ingrowth of new blood vessels from the pericorneal plexus into the normally avascular corneal tissue due to hypoxia or oxygen deprivation. It maintains the avascularity of the corneal stroma is important for corneal transparency and vision. The document describes the types, etiology, pathogenesis, symptoms, signs, and treatment options for corneal vascularization including medical options like anti-inflammatory drugs and anti-VEGF agents, and surgical options like laser ablation and photodynamic therapy.
This document discusses intermediate uveitis (IU), which involves inflammation in the anterior vitreous, pars plana, and peripheral retina. IU accounts for 8-22% of uveitis cases. Clinically, it is characterized by "snowballs" or yellow-white exudates in the peripheral vitreous. Treatment involves topical/periocular steroids initially, with cryotherapy, vitrectomy or immunosuppressants for non-responsive cases. Complications include cystoid macular edema, cataracts, glaucoma, and retinal detachment. Proper diagnosis requires excluding other causes like syphilis, Lyme disease, multiple sclerosis and sarcoidosis.
Ischemic condition affecting the eye.
The ischemia can occur secondary to systemically problem [or] particulary the eye.
Many retinal vascular disorders {like CRAO,CRVO,Diabetic retinopathy,Hypertensive Retinopathy} shows ischemic signs.
This document discusses corneal ulcers, including their definition, causes, microbiology, pathogenesis, stages, grading, symptoms, clinical examination, investigations, treatment, and complications. Key points include:
- Corneal ulcers are tissue excavations associated with epithelial defects, edema, infiltration and necrosis. They are usually caused by injury or foreign materials that allow microbial infection.
- Common microbes include bacteria (e.g. streptococcus, pseudomonas), fungi (e.g. candida, fusarium), protozoa (e.g. acanthamoeba), and viruses (e.g. herpes).
- Treatment involves local and systemic antibiotics, antifungals, or antiv
Pseudoexfoliation syndrome is a systemic condition characterized by grey-white fibrillar deposits that can lead to open-angle glaucoma. It involves the trabecular meshwork, lens, ciliary body and other ocular tissues, and is a major risk factor for glaucoma. Treatment involves managing elevated intraocular pressure through medications, laser trabeculoplasty, trabeculectomy or cataract surgery due to the increased risk of complications from zonular weakness.
This document provides information on anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (AION), which is the most common cause of acute optic neuropathy in older age groups. It can be divided into two types: arteritic AION, which is due to giant cell arteritis; and non-arteritic AION, which makes up most cases. Both types present with sudden painless vision loss and optic disc swelling. Arteritic AION carries a worse prognosis and requires high-dose steroid treatment to prevent loss of vision in the fellow eye. Non-arteritic AION has a variable course but generally a poor rate of recovery without any proven effective treatments.
1) Lacrimal gland tumors are rare, representing only 5-18% of orbital lesions, with an incidence of 1 per million people per year. They commonly affect the elderly.
2) The main types of lacrimal gland tumors are epithelial tumors such as pleomorphic adenoma (50% of epithelial tumors) and adenoid cystic carcinoma (50% of malignant tumors).
3) Pleomorphic adenomas typically present as a painless, slowly progressive mass in the lacrimal gland fossa and are usually treated with complete surgical excision. Adenoid cystic carcinomas have a high morbidity and mortality and often involve perineural spread.
1. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) uses light interferometry to perform high-resolution, cross-sectional imaging of the retina. It provides quantitative measurements of retinal nerve fiber layer thickness.
2. OCT images are analyzed to detect structural changes in the optic nerve head and retinal nerve fiber layer that can indicate glaucoma, often before visual field defects appear. Parameters like retinal nerve fiber layer thickness, cup-to-disc ratio, and nerve fiber layer deviation maps are used to diagnose and monitor glaucoma progression.
3. Macular ganglion cell complex thickness, which includes the retinal nerve fiber layer, ganglion cell layer, and inner plexiform layer, can also detect early glaucomatous loss
Corneal dystrophy is a group of inherited bilateral corneal conditions characterized by progressive corneal opacity. There are several classifications of corneal dystrophy based on the layer of the cornea affected, including epithelial dystrophy affecting the epithelium and basement membrane, Bowman's layer dystrophy, stromal dystrophy affecting the stroma, and Descemet's membrane and endothelial dystrophy affecting the inner layers. Diagnosis involves slit lamp examination to determine the opacity pattern, location, and characteristics in direct and retroillumination. Treatment depends on the severity and type but may include lubricants, therapeutic contact lenses, corneal transplantation, or newer procedures like DSAEK.
Retinitis pigmentosa is a group of hereditary retinal diseases characterized by progressive degeneration of photoreceptors. It begins with night blindness and peripheral vision loss and can progress to tunnel vision or legal blindness. Genetic mutations affecting photoreceptor structure and function or RNA splicing are responsible. On examination, bone spicule pigmentation, vascular attenuation, optic nerve pallor and RPE changes are seen. Diagnosis is confirmed by electroretinography showing photoreceptor dysfunction. There is currently no cure but management focuses on low vision aids, vitamins, and gene or stem cell therapies which are under investigation.
The document discusses the angle of the anterior chamber and aqueous humor dynamics. It covers the anatomy and development of the angle, diagnostic methods for examining the angle like gonioscopy, and grading scales for the angle. It also discusses the production and drainage of aqueous humor, including the roles of the ciliary body and processes, trabecular meshwork, and collector channels. Key functions of the aqueous humor include maintaining eye pressure and providing nutrients to ocular tissues.
This document discusses several conditions that can mimic anterior or posterior uveitis, including intraocular lymphoma, retinoblastoma, uveal melanoma, leukemias, and juvenile xanthogranuloma. It provides details on the presentation, diagnosis, classification, and treatment of these conditions. Primary intraocular lymphoma often involves infiltration of the retina and optic nerve in patients over 50 years old. Retinoblastoma is the most common primary intraocular malignancy in children and can present as leucocoria, strabismus, or glaucoma. Uveal melanoma, leukemias, and juvenile xanthogranuloma can also involve the eye and be misdiagnosed as uveitis.
Most retinal surgeons are trained to create formal retinal drawings of the fundus.
Retinal drawings are useful to document pathology, although more and more people now prefer fundus photographs.
Can be used for serial follow up of patients to document changes in the pathology.
Macular hole is a defect in the macula involving its full thickness. It was first described in 1869. Idiopathic macular holes are the most common type and affect people over age 55. Staging of macular holes ranges from stage 1 to 4 based on size and pathology. Symptoms include decreased vision and metamorphopsia. Diagnosis involves examination, OCT, and sometimes FA. Treatment is usually vitrectomy surgery for stages 2-4 to relieve traction on the macula. Prognosis depends on pre-op vision and hole size/duration, with most patients gaining vision after surgery.
This document provides information on tumors of the eyelids, including their classification, anatomical considerations, and management. It discusses benign and malignant tumors, describing key features such as appearance, histopathology, and treatment for various tumor types, including seborrheic keratosis, keratoacanthoma, nevi, basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma. It outlines the importance of biopsy for diagnosis and discusses surgical excision, Mohs micrographic surgery, radiotherapy, and cryotherapy as main treatment approaches.
This document discusses the evaluation of ptosis, or drooping of the eyelids. It begins by defining ptosis and distinguishing between true and pseudo ptosis. True ptosis is classified as acquired or congenital, with acquired further divided into neurogenic, myogenic, aponeurotic, and mechanical types. The evaluation of ptosis involves a thorough history, measurement of margin-reflex distance, palpebral fissure height, levator function, and upper lid crease. Additional tests include assessing for fatigability, Cogan's twitch sign, and jaw winking phenomenon. Confirmatory tests include the ice test and edrophonium (Tensilon) test. Treatment options mentioned include eyelid
The document discusses corneal hydration and edema. It begins by explaining that the cornea's water content is normally around 78% to maintain transparency. Corneal edema occurs when water content increases above this level. Factors that influence corneal hydration are then described, including stromal swelling pressure, intraocular pressure, and the sodium-potassium pump in the endothelium. Causes of corneal edema are outlined as either primary, such as endothelial dystrophies, or secondary due to trauma, glaucoma, contact lenses or metabolic disorders. Symptoms, evaluation and management of corneal edema are also summarized.
This document defines corneal vascularization as the ingrowth of new blood vessels from the pericorneal plexus into the normally avascular corneal tissue due to hypoxia or oxygen deprivation. It maintains the avascularity of the corneal stroma is important for corneal transparency and vision. The document describes the types, etiology, pathogenesis, symptoms, signs, and treatment options for corneal vascularization including medical options like anti-inflammatory drugs and anti-VEGF agents, and surgical options like laser ablation and photodynamic therapy.
This document discusses intermediate uveitis (IU), which involves inflammation in the anterior vitreous, pars plana, and peripheral retina. IU accounts for 8-22% of uveitis cases. Clinically, it is characterized by "snowballs" or yellow-white exudates in the peripheral vitreous. Treatment involves topical/periocular steroids initially, with cryotherapy, vitrectomy or immunosuppressants for non-responsive cases. Complications include cystoid macular edema, cataracts, glaucoma, and retinal detachment. Proper diagnosis requires excluding other causes like syphilis, Lyme disease, multiple sclerosis and sarcoidosis.
Brief explanation of dybiosis and leaky gut syndrome. Herbal and dietary recommendations using Inno-Vita formulas. This information is for education purposes only. Herbal programs should be monitored by a qualified health professional.
Retinoblastoma is a highly malignant tumor that arises from retinal cells in children. It requires inactivation of both copies of the RB1 tumor suppressor gene. Treatment depends on tumor size and extent, and may include focal treatments like thermotherapy, chemotherapy, brachytherapy or external beam radiation. For more advanced cases, enucleation is needed. Long term follow up is important to monitor for potential recurrence or secondary tumors.
Sympathetic ophthalmia and Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease are both rare granulomatous uveitides that can cause bilateral eye inflammation. Sympathetic ophthalmia occurs after trauma or surgery to one eye, while VKH disease is thought to be an autoimmune response against ocular and skin melanocytes. Both can lead to vision loss if not treated promptly with high-dose corticosteroids and immunosuppressants. Imaging like fluorescein angiography and optical coherence tomography are useful for monitoring disease activity and response to treatment.
This document discusses vitamin A deficiency and its effects on the eyes. It begins by defining nutrients and describing the different forms of vitamin A, including retinol and carotenoids. Signs of vitamin A deficiency include night blindness and xerophthalmia, characterized by dryness of the conjunctiva and cornea. Left untreated, it can lead to corneal ulceration and keratomalacia. The document outlines recommendations for vitamin A intake and describes treatment involving oral or injectable vitamin A supplementation. It emphasizes the importance of prophylaxis through food fortification and dietary sources in preventing vitamin A deficiency.
This document discusses various causes of proptosis (forward protrusion of the eyeball), including thyroid eye disease, orbital inflammatory pseudotumor, infectious orbital cellulitis, optic nerve glioma, rhabdomyosarcoma, cavernous hemangioma, and orbital lymphomas. For each condition, it provides details on symptoms, diagnostic tools such as CT scans, characteristic findings, treatment options, and importance of systemic evaluation. Thyroid eye disease and orbital inflammatory pseudotumor are highlighted as common causes of bilateral proptosis, while rhabdomyosarcoma has the highest mortality risk if untreated and spreads beyond the orbit.
This document discusses ptosis, or drooping of the upper eyelid. It defines ptosis as the upper eyelid covering more than 2mm of the cornea. The document describes the different types of ptosis, including congenital, acquired, neurogenic, myogenic, aponeurotic, and mechanical. It also covers examinations for ptosis including measurements of marginal reflex distance, vertical fissure height, upper lid crease, and pretarsal show. The document discusses treatments for ptosis such as the Fasanella-Servat procedure, levator resection, and frontalis brow suspension.
This document discusses various viruses that can cause eye infections or diseases. It provides details on the general properties of viruses, then examines specific viruses like adenovirus, herpes simplex virus, herpes zoster, cytomegalovirus, pox viruses, picornaviruses, paramyxoviruses, measles, rubella and HIV. For each virus, it describes the viral structure, transmission, signs and symptoms of ocular infection, laboratory diagnosis and treatment approaches.
Immunosuppressive agents in ophthalmologyTina Chandar
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This document discusses various immunosuppressive agents used in ophthalmology, including their mechanisms of action, clinical indications, dosages, and potential adverse effects. It covers alkylating agents like cyclophosphamide and chlorambucil, antimetabolites like azathioprine and methotrexate, the antibiotic cyclosporin A, and newer agents like tacrolimus, daclizumab, and infliximab. Monitoring of blood counts is important when using these drugs due to risks of bone marrow suppression, infections, and other toxicities. Careful dosage adjustment and patient follow up is needed with immunosuppressive therapy for ocular conditions.
The document discusses factors that affect corneal transparency. The main points are:
1. The cornea's main function is to refract light to form a clear retinal image. Normal transparency results from the cornea's anatomical structure and relative dehydration.
2. Any disruption to the cornea's anatomy or physiology can cause loss of transparency. Key factors are the corneal epithelium, tear film, stromal layer arrangement, vascularization, hydration, and cellular components.
3. The corneal epithelium and tight junctions between cells contribute to transparency and act as a barrier. Disruptions to the epithelium or tear film can compromise transparency.
Keratoconus is a progressive disorder where the cornea thins and protrudes into a cone shape, usually developing during puberty and progressing until the 3rd-4th decades. It affects both eyes and causes vision impairment from irregular astigmatism and myopia. Diagnosis involves examining for signs of stromal thinning, protrusion, striae, Fleischer ring, and steep keratometry readings. Treatment ranges from glasses and contact lenses in early stages to keratoplasty for severe scarring.
This document describes orbital cellulitis, including its causes, symptoms, potential complications, diagnostic tests, and treatment. Orbital cellulitis is a purulent inflammation of the orbital connective tissue that can be caused by the spread of infection from nearby areas like sinuses or injuries. Symptoms include swelling, eye pain, and vision issues. Without treatment, complications can include abscesses, vision loss, and spread to nearby areas like the brain. Diagnosis involves tests like CT scans and cultures. Treatment consists of broad-spectrum antibiotics, monitoring by multiple specialists, and sometimes surgical drainage or decompression.
This document defines and describes diabetic retinopathy, its risk factors, pathogenesis, pathological lesions, classifications, and macular edema. Diabetic retinopathy is a progressive microangiopathy caused by breakdown of the blood-retinal barrier from damage to the small blood vessels of the retina. It can progress from non-proliferative to proliferative stages and is a leading cause of blindness if left untreated. The document outlines the stages and features used to classify diabetic retinopathy severity.
Amblyopia, commonly known as lazy eye, results from inadequate stimulation of the retina and abnormal binocular interaction during visual development. It can be caused by strabismus, significant refractive error differences between the eyes, stimulus deprivation, high symmetrical refractive errors, or uncorrected astigmatism. Diagnosis involves assessing visual acuity differences between eyes and other vision tests. Treatment aims to eliminate obstacles to vision by correcting refractive errors, forcing use of the weaker eye through occlusion or penalization of the stronger eye, with earlier treatment yielding better results. The required treatment time depends on the degree of amblyopia and patient compliance with the prescribed regimen.