CONTINUOUS X RAY SPECTRUM ITS DEPENDENCE ON VOLTAGE DUANE AND HUNT LAWRohini ...Rai Saheb Bhanwar Singh College NasrullaganjThe document discusses the spectrum of X-rays obtained from a Coolidge tube. It can produce either a continuous spectrum or characteristic lines depending on the conditions. A continuous spectrum results from low-energy electrons hitting the target. The shortest wavelength is determined by the tube voltage, not the target material. Higher voltages produce shorter wavelengths and more intense X-rays across all wavelengths. The maximum intensity occurs at a specific wavelength that shifts to shorter wavelengths with increasing voltage.
Time resolved infrared spectroscopyDaniel MortonThis document describes the principles and applications of time-resolved infrared spectroscopy (TRIR). TRIR combines ultraviolet flash photolysis with fast infrared detection to monitor excited states and short-lived reaction intermediates. It provides TRIR spectra of a reaction between a metal carbonyl and an organic ligand, showing the appearance and disappearance of product and reactant peaks. The document also presents two example problems demonstrating how TRIR can be used to determine reaction mechanisms and identify isomers.
Color Seminardfoley2019This document discusses light and color science, including color perception, light sources, objects, and visual color management. It covers key topics such as how color is influenced by the light source, object, and observer. Common light sources like daylight, incandescent, fluorescent, and their properties are described. Visual color evaluation limitations and the importance of standardized viewing conditions are also summarized. Instrumental color measurement is introduced as more accurate than visual assessment.
Synchrotronvidwan pandeyThe document discusses synchrotrons, which are particle accelerators that produce very bright light for research. It describes how synchrotrons work, with electrons being emitted and accelerated through components like an electron gun, linear accelerator, booster ring, and storage ring. This produces intense electromagnetic waves called synchrotron light. Synchrotron light is much brighter than standard X-rays and allows scientists to observe molecular interactions. The document outlines some of the many applications of synchrotrons, such as in materials engineering, medical imaging and therapy, environmental research, and forensics.
Radioactive isotopes as tracersDiscover for newwhat is radio active isotopes
uses of various fields in tracers
disadvantages of tracers
what are radioactive tracers
application in research fields in tracers
application in agriculture fields
Opto electronicsmofassairSolid State Electronics.
this slide is made from taking help of
TextBook
Ben.G.StreetmanandSanjayBanerjee:SolidStateElectronicDevices,Prentice-HallofIndiaPrivateLimited.
Interaction of ionising radiationKiran RamakrishnaIonizing radiation can ionize matter directly through charged particles like electrons and protons or indirectly through neutral particles like photons and neutrons. Directly ionizing particles have sufficient kinetic energy to ionize through collisions, while indirectly ionizing particles release directly ionizing secondary particles when interacting with matter. Photons can be attenuated by interactions like the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and pair production, with the dominant interaction depending on photon energy. Charged particles interact through Coulomb forces, losing energy through ionization and bremsstrahlung. Neutrons interact primarily through collisions, transferring energy efficiently to heavier nuclei.
Interaction of radiation with matterAbhishek Soni1) The document discusses the interaction of radiation with matter, including the different types of radiation and their properties. It describes electromagnetic radiation and the electromagnetic spectrum.
2) The main interactions that occur between radiation and matter are photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and pair production. The photoelectric effect involves the ejection of an electron from an atom when a photon transfers all its energy. Compton scattering is the scattering of photons by loosely bound electrons, resulting in energy transfer. Pair production occurs when a photon converts into an electron-positron pair in the vicinity of a nucleus.
3) The dominant interaction depends on the photon energy - photoelectric effect dominates at low energies, Compton scattering in the soft
Laser lecture 06Ibb University, Yemen + Jazan University, KSAThis document discusses different types of lasers categorized by their gain medium. It provides details on atomic gas lasers like helium-neon lasers and ion gas lasers like argon ion lasers. Helium-neon lasers use a mixture of helium and neon gases as the gain medium, with the helium assisting in the population inversion process to allow lasing from neon. Argon ion lasers use argon gas that is ionized, with the argon ions providing the lasing transition. Excimer lasers use excimer or exciplex molecules as the gain medium, which only exist in excited states and allow efficient population inversion.
Raman SpectroscopyManas MantriRaman spectroscopy is complementary to infrared spectroscopy. It involves scattering of monochromatic light, usually from a laser, with the frequency of photons in the scattered radiation shifted up or down relative to the incident photons. This shift provides information about vibrational modes in the molecule. Raman scattering arises from a change in polarizability rather than a change in dipole moment as in infrared spectroscopy. The Raman effect occurs when the laser light interacts with molecular vibrations, phonons or other excitations, resulting in the energy of the laser photons being shifted up or down. The shift in energy allows the measurement of vibrational modes in a system. Raman spectroscopy is a useful technique for qualitative and quantitative analysis of organic, inorganic, and biological samples
1-Crystallography.pptxVishnuVardhan909561The document discusses different types of solids and crystal structures. It begins by stating that everything around us is matter, which is made of molecules and exists in four main types. It then discusses crystalline and amorphous solids, and the key differences between them. Crystalline solids like metals can have either a single crystal or polycrystalline structure. The document also covers various crystal structures like simple cubic, body centered cubic, face centered cubic, and diamond cubic. It defines important concepts such as unit cell, lattice points, Miller indices, coordination number and packing factor.
Infrared spectrum / infrared frequency and hydrocarbonsRavish YadavThis document provides information about infrared (IR) spectroscopy and analyzing IR spectra of different functional groups. It discusses:
1. The conditions required for IR absorption and the division of the IR spectrum into the functional group and fingerprint regions.
2. The characteristic IR absorptions of common functional groups like alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, alcohols, phenols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, amides, amines, and aromatics. Specific examples and their spectra are provided.
3. Factors that affect IR frequencies, such as bond strength, mass of atoms, resonance, conjugation, and hydrogen bonding.
Ionization chamber - INAYA MEDICAL COLLEGEAnas YessRadiation detection uses two main methods: ionization and excitation. There are two types of radiation detection in nuclear medicine: gas-filled detectors used for non-imaging and scintillator detectors used for imaging. Gas-filled detectors like ionization chambers function by measuring the ionization produced in the gas when radiation passes through. Ionization chambers are the simplest gas-filled detectors and are widely used to detect x-rays, gamma rays, and beta particles by collecting the ion pairs created through ionization in the gas using an electric field.
Principi di spettroscopiaRiccardo Narizzanoݺߣ per l'insegnamento di Chimica Analitica del corso di laurea in Scienza dei Materiali. Università degli Studi di Genova
Magnetism_in_solids-169383652.pptNasirKhalidAbdullahi1This document provides an outline and introduction to different types of magnetism, including diamagnetism, paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, and antiferromagnetism. It then goes on to describe Langevin's classical theory of diamagnetism and paramagnetism. Next, it covers the quantum theory of paramagnetism and Weiss' theory of ferromagnetism involving magnetic domains and molecular fields. The document provides an overview of key concepts relating to different magnetic behaviors on a microscopic and macroscopic scale.
ENERGY BANDS AND EFFECTIVE MASSpptBiswajeetMishra211) The document discusses energy band theory and how it relates to the electrical properties of semiconductors, insulators, and metals. It explains that semiconductors have a small forbidden band gap between the valence and conduction bands, allowing thermal or electromagnetic excitation of electrons.
2) The concept of effective mass is introduced, where electrons in a crystal lattice behave as if they have a different mass than free electrons due to the crystal potential. Effective mass depends on the curvature of electron energy-momentum diagrams.
3) Direct and indirect band gap materials are distinguished based on whether the minimum of the conduction band and maximum of the valence band occur at the same or different crystal momentum values.
ElectrostaticsM.G. College, ArmoriThis ݺߣ explains basic theories in electrostatics, i.e. Coulomb's law, Electric field, electric potential, electric dipole, electric field due to electric dipole, etc.
Visit: https://phystudypoint.blogspot.com
Character table in symmmetry operation aShivamKumarPathak51) The document discusses using character tables to analyze the symmetry of molecular orbitals and vibrations. It covers basis functions, reducible and irreducible representations, reducing reducible representations to irreducible representations using decomposition formulas or inspection, and examples for N2H2 and XeOF4.
2) Direct products involve multiplying the characters of two representations to determine the symmetry of combined wave functions, allowed transitions, and more. Direct product tables are used to perform these calculations for different point groups.
3) Character tables are an essential tool for understanding molecular symmetry.
Band structure(2)David DavidThis document provides an overview of electronic band structure and Bloch theory in solid state physics. It discusses the differences between the Sommerfeld and Bloch approaches to modeling electron behavior in periodic solids. Key points include:
- Bloch's treatment models electrons using band indices and crystal momentum rather than just momentum.
- Bloch states follow classical dynamics on average, with crystal momentum replacing ordinary momentum.
- The band structure determines allowed electron energies and velocities for a given crystal momentum.
- Bloch's theory accounts for periodic potentials within the crystal lattice, allowing for band gaps and a more accurate description of electron behavior in solids.
Radiation TherapykathrnrtIonizing radiation interacts with atoms by removing electrons, leaving unstable molecules that break apart into free radicals. Radiation can cause direct or indirect damage to DNA through these free radicals. Radiation is classified by its linear energy transfer (LET), with high-LET radiation depositing energy densely along its path and more directly damaging DNA, while low-LET radiation interacts more randomly and indirectly through free radicals. Common types of ionizing radiation include alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, x-rays, and neutrons. Radiation can damage DNA through base modifications, strand breaks, and chromosome aberrations such as translocations or deletions. Actively dividing cells are generally more radiosensitive than mature cells. Fractionated radiation
gm counterRai Saheb Bhanwar Singh College NasrullaganjThe Geiger-Muller counter is a device that detects and measures all types of radiation such as alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. It consists of a pair of electrodes with a high voltage between them and contains a gas such as helium or argon. When radiation passes through the gas, it ionizes the gas atoms and produces electrons that cause further ionization, creating an avalanche effect. However, this avalanche effect can make it difficult to count individual pulses. To address this, the successive avalanches are "quenched" either through an external resistance or by using a particular filling gas, allowing individual pulses to be measured.
22 magnetism3Vikas KumarThis document discusses different types of magnetic ordering in materials, including ferromagnetism, ferrimagnetism, and antiferromagnetism. It explains that ferromagnetism results from the coupling of atomic magnetic moments through direct exchange or super exchange interactions. Materials exhibit ferromagnetism below a critical temperature called the Curie temperature. The document also discusses the Heisenberg exchange model and how the exchange interaction depends on the relative orientation of atomic spins. It provides examples of the exchange interaction in transition metals and rare earth elements.
Ising modelMuhammad Usama Daud1. The Ising model is a statistical mechanics model of ferromagnetism. It represents magnetic dipole moments as "spins" on a lattice that can point in one of two directions and interact with neighboring spins.
2. The Ising model can explain phase transitions like ferromagnetism, anti-ferromagnetism, gas-liquid transitions, and liquid-solid transitions.
3. The statistical mechanics of the Ising model are studied using the Hamiltonian, which includes terms for spin-spin interaction energy and the energy of an external magnetic field interacting with the magnetic moments. Partition functions are then used to calculate thermodynamic properties.
Ruthenium based anti-cancer drugshope4revolutionThe document discusses ruthenium-based drugs as potential alternatives to platinum-based anticancer drugs like cisplatin. Ruthenium compounds have properties that make them well-suited for medical applications, including ligand exchange kinetics similar to cisplatin and the ability to exist in multiple oxidation states under physiological conditions. Some ruthenium complexes have shown anticancer activity through interactions with DNA like intercalation and groove binding. The most successful ruthenium-based drug to date is NAMI-A, which can bind DNA but does not appear to cause DNA damage as its mechanism of action.
Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) - Overview & InterpretationManoj PrajapatiInfrared spectroscopy deals with the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum, that is light with a longer wavelength and lower frequency than visible light. Infrared Spectroscopy is an analysis of infrared light interacting with a molecule.
The IR spectroscopy can be analyzed in three ways: by measuring absorption, emission, and reflection. The major use of this technique is in organic and inorganic chemistry to determine functional groups of molecules. A basic IR spectrum is essentially a graph of infrared light absorbed on the vertical axis vs. frequency or wavelength on the horizontal axis.
Interaction of x-ray and radiation effectsCobain Nirvanit includes everything related to interaction with matter of x-ray along with biological effects of radiation
Laser lecture 06Ibb University, Yemen + Jazan University, KSAThis document discusses different types of lasers categorized by their gain medium. It provides details on atomic gas lasers like helium-neon lasers and ion gas lasers like argon ion lasers. Helium-neon lasers use a mixture of helium and neon gases as the gain medium, with the helium assisting in the population inversion process to allow lasing from neon. Argon ion lasers use argon gas that is ionized, with the argon ions providing the lasing transition. Excimer lasers use excimer or exciplex molecules as the gain medium, which only exist in excited states and allow efficient population inversion.
Raman SpectroscopyManas MantriRaman spectroscopy is complementary to infrared spectroscopy. It involves scattering of monochromatic light, usually from a laser, with the frequency of photons in the scattered radiation shifted up or down relative to the incident photons. This shift provides information about vibrational modes in the molecule. Raman scattering arises from a change in polarizability rather than a change in dipole moment as in infrared spectroscopy. The Raman effect occurs when the laser light interacts with molecular vibrations, phonons or other excitations, resulting in the energy of the laser photons being shifted up or down. The shift in energy allows the measurement of vibrational modes in a system. Raman spectroscopy is a useful technique for qualitative and quantitative analysis of organic, inorganic, and biological samples
1-Crystallography.pptxVishnuVardhan909561The document discusses different types of solids and crystal structures. It begins by stating that everything around us is matter, which is made of molecules and exists in four main types. It then discusses crystalline and amorphous solids, and the key differences between them. Crystalline solids like metals can have either a single crystal or polycrystalline structure. The document also covers various crystal structures like simple cubic, body centered cubic, face centered cubic, and diamond cubic. It defines important concepts such as unit cell, lattice points, Miller indices, coordination number and packing factor.
Infrared spectrum / infrared frequency and hydrocarbonsRavish YadavThis document provides information about infrared (IR) spectroscopy and analyzing IR spectra of different functional groups. It discusses:
1. The conditions required for IR absorption and the division of the IR spectrum into the functional group and fingerprint regions.
2. The characteristic IR absorptions of common functional groups like alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, alcohols, phenols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, amides, amines, and aromatics. Specific examples and their spectra are provided.
3. Factors that affect IR frequencies, such as bond strength, mass of atoms, resonance, conjugation, and hydrogen bonding.
Ionization chamber - INAYA MEDICAL COLLEGEAnas YessRadiation detection uses two main methods: ionization and excitation. There are two types of radiation detection in nuclear medicine: gas-filled detectors used for non-imaging and scintillator detectors used for imaging. Gas-filled detectors like ionization chambers function by measuring the ionization produced in the gas when radiation passes through. Ionization chambers are the simplest gas-filled detectors and are widely used to detect x-rays, gamma rays, and beta particles by collecting the ion pairs created through ionization in the gas using an electric field.
Principi di spettroscopiaRiccardo Narizzanoݺߣ per l'insegnamento di Chimica Analitica del corso di laurea in Scienza dei Materiali. Università degli Studi di Genova
Magnetism_in_solids-169383652.pptNasirKhalidAbdullahi1This document provides an outline and introduction to different types of magnetism, including diamagnetism, paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, and antiferromagnetism. It then goes on to describe Langevin's classical theory of diamagnetism and paramagnetism. Next, it covers the quantum theory of paramagnetism and Weiss' theory of ferromagnetism involving magnetic domains and molecular fields. The document provides an overview of key concepts relating to different magnetic behaviors on a microscopic and macroscopic scale.
ENERGY BANDS AND EFFECTIVE MASSpptBiswajeetMishra211) The document discusses energy band theory and how it relates to the electrical properties of semiconductors, insulators, and metals. It explains that semiconductors have a small forbidden band gap between the valence and conduction bands, allowing thermal or electromagnetic excitation of electrons.
2) The concept of effective mass is introduced, where electrons in a crystal lattice behave as if they have a different mass than free electrons due to the crystal potential. Effective mass depends on the curvature of electron energy-momentum diagrams.
3) Direct and indirect band gap materials are distinguished based on whether the minimum of the conduction band and maximum of the valence band occur at the same or different crystal momentum values.
ElectrostaticsM.G. College, ArmoriThis ݺߣ explains basic theories in electrostatics, i.e. Coulomb's law, Electric field, electric potential, electric dipole, electric field due to electric dipole, etc.
Visit: https://phystudypoint.blogspot.com
Character table in symmmetry operation aShivamKumarPathak51) The document discusses using character tables to analyze the symmetry of molecular orbitals and vibrations. It covers basis functions, reducible and irreducible representations, reducing reducible representations to irreducible representations using decomposition formulas or inspection, and examples for N2H2 and XeOF4.
2) Direct products involve multiplying the characters of two representations to determine the symmetry of combined wave functions, allowed transitions, and more. Direct product tables are used to perform these calculations for different point groups.
3) Character tables are an essential tool for understanding molecular symmetry.
Band structure(2)David DavidThis document provides an overview of electronic band structure and Bloch theory in solid state physics. It discusses the differences between the Sommerfeld and Bloch approaches to modeling electron behavior in periodic solids. Key points include:
- Bloch's treatment models electrons using band indices and crystal momentum rather than just momentum.
- Bloch states follow classical dynamics on average, with crystal momentum replacing ordinary momentum.
- The band structure determines allowed electron energies and velocities for a given crystal momentum.
- Bloch's theory accounts for periodic potentials within the crystal lattice, allowing for band gaps and a more accurate description of electron behavior in solids.
Radiation TherapykathrnrtIonizing radiation interacts with atoms by removing electrons, leaving unstable molecules that break apart into free radicals. Radiation can cause direct or indirect damage to DNA through these free radicals. Radiation is classified by its linear energy transfer (LET), with high-LET radiation depositing energy densely along its path and more directly damaging DNA, while low-LET radiation interacts more randomly and indirectly through free radicals. Common types of ionizing radiation include alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, x-rays, and neutrons. Radiation can damage DNA through base modifications, strand breaks, and chromosome aberrations such as translocations or deletions. Actively dividing cells are generally more radiosensitive than mature cells. Fractionated radiation
gm counterRai Saheb Bhanwar Singh College NasrullaganjThe Geiger-Muller counter is a device that detects and measures all types of radiation such as alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. It consists of a pair of electrodes with a high voltage between them and contains a gas such as helium or argon. When radiation passes through the gas, it ionizes the gas atoms and produces electrons that cause further ionization, creating an avalanche effect. However, this avalanche effect can make it difficult to count individual pulses. To address this, the successive avalanches are "quenched" either through an external resistance or by using a particular filling gas, allowing individual pulses to be measured.
22 magnetism3Vikas KumarThis document discusses different types of magnetic ordering in materials, including ferromagnetism, ferrimagnetism, and antiferromagnetism. It explains that ferromagnetism results from the coupling of atomic magnetic moments through direct exchange or super exchange interactions. Materials exhibit ferromagnetism below a critical temperature called the Curie temperature. The document also discusses the Heisenberg exchange model and how the exchange interaction depends on the relative orientation of atomic spins. It provides examples of the exchange interaction in transition metals and rare earth elements.
Ising modelMuhammad Usama Daud1. The Ising model is a statistical mechanics model of ferromagnetism. It represents magnetic dipole moments as "spins" on a lattice that can point in one of two directions and interact with neighboring spins.
2. The Ising model can explain phase transitions like ferromagnetism, anti-ferromagnetism, gas-liquid transitions, and liquid-solid transitions.
3. The statistical mechanics of the Ising model are studied using the Hamiltonian, which includes terms for spin-spin interaction energy and the energy of an external magnetic field interacting with the magnetic moments. Partition functions are then used to calculate thermodynamic properties.
Ruthenium based anti-cancer drugshope4revolutionThe document discusses ruthenium-based drugs as potential alternatives to platinum-based anticancer drugs like cisplatin. Ruthenium compounds have properties that make them well-suited for medical applications, including ligand exchange kinetics similar to cisplatin and the ability to exist in multiple oxidation states under physiological conditions. Some ruthenium complexes have shown anticancer activity through interactions with DNA like intercalation and groove binding. The most successful ruthenium-based drug to date is NAMI-A, which can bind DNA but does not appear to cause DNA damage as its mechanism of action.
Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) - Overview & InterpretationManoj PrajapatiInfrared spectroscopy deals with the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum, that is light with a longer wavelength and lower frequency than visible light. Infrared Spectroscopy is an analysis of infrared light interacting with a molecule.
The IR spectroscopy can be analyzed in three ways: by measuring absorption, emission, and reflection. The major use of this technique is in organic and inorganic chemistry to determine functional groups of molecules. A basic IR spectrum is essentially a graph of infrared light absorbed on the vertical axis vs. frequency or wavelength on the horizontal axis.
Interaction of x-ray and radiation effectsCobain Nirvanit includes everything related to interaction with matter of x-ray along with biological effects of radiation
2. Spettro dei raggi X
prodotti da elettroni collidenti con un elemento metallico
min
corrispondeall'energiacineticadeglielettroni:Ec
=hc/min
3. Diagramma dei livelli atomici
La fastidiosa notazione
spettroscopicadeiraggiX:
Le transizioni atomiche che
originano lo spettro
caratteristico dei raggi X si
indicanoconnomispeciali:
Righe K: lo stato finale
dell'elettrone che decade è il
livello K, cioè n=1, (K
se il
livelloinizialeèL,K
seèM,…)
RigheL:lostatofinaleèillivello
L, cioè n=2, (L
se il livello
inizialeèM,L
seèN,…)diagrammalivelliX
diMo(Z=42)
4. Aspetto generale dello spettro
laK
:quellaalunghezza
d'ondamaggioretraquellea
lunghezzad'ondaminima
ungruppo
di
transizioni
apiccola
nopicchi
a
minore
altre
transizioni
apiu
grande
UVvis
(raggiX)
5. Legge di Moseley
• Nel 1913 Moseley
genera gli spettri
caratteristici di tutti gli
elementialloranoti
•Lalunghezzad'onda
(o equivalentemente la
frequenza delle righe
K
di elementi diversi
dipendono solo dal
numero atomico Z e
obbediscono a una
legge semplice (e così
fannotuttelealtrerighe)
Z
6. I raggi X e la costruzione
della tavola periodica
1
λ
=R
1
m2
−
1
n2 Z−b2
Z=numeroatomico
b=schermatura≃1
R=cost.diRydberg
=10973731.6m1
I picchi caratteristici nello spettro X sono la carta
d’identità degli elementi chimici. Hanno permesso di
completarelatavolaperiodicaidentificandoilvaloredi
Z(caricanucleare)dituttiglielementi.
MedianteipicchiXsisonoidentificatinuovielementi
7. Confronto spettro ottico - raggi X
RaggiX
•livellipiùinterni(dicore)
•frequenze/energie elevate
(h>50eV)
•poco influenzati dai legami
chimici
•pocherighebenidentificate
•Eccitazione: si crea una
lacuna (hole) in un livello
profondo (di core) portando
l'elettroneinunlivellovuoto
Spettriottici
•livellipiùesterni(valenza)
•frequenze/energie ottiche
(1eV<h<20eV)
•cambiano molto nelle
molecolerispettoagliatomi
•tantissimerighe
•Eccitazione: si promuove
un elettrone di valenza ad
unlivellovuotopiùalto
8. Esempi di spettri di emissione
(fluorescenza) X
LospettrodiemissioneXdiunsingoloelemento(quiPb)mostra
pochipicchibenidentificati.
NellafluorescenzaXgliatomisonoeccitatidaraggiX,invece
chedaisolitielettroni.Vantaggio:nonservevuoto.
L'isotopo 109
Cd è spesso usato come sorgenti di raggi X () a
214keV.Vantaggio:portabilità.
9. Esempi di spettri di fluorescenza X
Ipicchicaratteristicidivarielementisidistinguonochiaramente
nellospettrodiemissione:unottimotoolanalitico.
12. Confronto spettro ottico - raggi X:
differenze tecnologiche
SpettroscopiaX
•vuoto
•monocromatoriacristalli(Si)
•sorgenti: anodo rotante,
decadimenti nucleari (109
Cd),
sincrotroni
•lenti inefficienti (n ~ 1: solo
Fresnel), specchi inefficienti
(solo cristalli, di solito Si) e
ingombranti, fenditure
scatterano e emettono
elettroni,“finestre”inefficienti
diBe.
Spettroscopiaottica
•aria
•monocromatoriareticolo
•luminose & efficienti
sorgenti standard
(lampade/laser)
•lenti, specchi, fenditure,
“finestre” semplici,
standard, economici &
efficienti
13. Assorbimento di raggi X
InterazioneraggiXmateria
Cessionedienergiasoprattuttoaglielettroni
interni,conpossibileeccitazionedegliatomi
Atomo eccitato diventa instabile e poi
decade...
Dueprocessiimportanti:Dueprocessiimportanti:
EffettoEffetto
fotoelettricofotoelettrico
(elettroni interni)
EffettoEffetto
ComptonCompton
(elettroni valenza)
3p
3s
1s
2p
2s
4s
3d
K
L
M
4p
14. Effetto fotoelettrico
fotoneXdibassaenergiainteragisceconelettronelegato
cedendotuttalasuaenergia
Step 1: un elettrone di core è
espulsoesiformaunalacuna
Step2:unelettronedasaltada
un'orbita più alta a colmare la
lacuna, con emissione X
caratteristica
Possibilità di nuovo effetto
fotoelettrico: si crea
possibilità di reazione “a
catena” (anche l'elettrone
espulsopuòionizzare)
Eccitazioni elettroniche
ad alta energia: danni
biologici se il materiale
bersaglio consiste di
cellule
16. Effetto Compton
Radiazioni di alta energia. Il fotone cede parte
dellasuaenergiaadelettronipiùesterni(“liberi”)
Il fotone diffuso può
interagiredinuovocon
effetto fotoelettrico o
Compton
Spettrocontinuo
L'intensitàdieffettofotoelettricoeComptonaumentaconZ
La maggior parte dei materiali biologici sono composti
soprattutto di atomi a basso Z (H (Z=1), C (Z=6), N (Z=7), O
(Z=8):ComptondominaaEfotone
>300keV
18. Applicazioni: Radiografia
La pellicola registra ombreombre più o
meno intense in un fascio circa
parallelo di raggi X.
Tradizionalmente, le immagine
sono registrate con pellicola
fotograficanegativa:
Zonepiùchiare:intensitàraggiX
è minore (tessuti con maggiore
assorbimento)
Zonepiùscure:intensitàraggiX
è maggiore (tessuti con debole
assorbimento)
21. Microscopia X
MicrotomografiaaraggiXdiuna
cellula di lievito. Sono visibili gli
organelliinterni.Rosso:ilnucleoe
ungrossovacuolo.Bianco:gocce
dilipidi.Arancione/verde:strutture
citoplasmiche.
http://www.lbl.gov/ScienceArticles/Archive/ALSxraymicroscopy.html
Microimmagine a raggi X di
materiali biologici in un minerale,
con analisi di elementi mediante
fluorescenza.
http://www.esrf.eu/UsersAndScience/Publications/Highlights/2007/XIM/XIM8
Vantaggio su luce visibile: minore ⇒ meno diffrazione, più dettaglio
22. Altre applicazioni dei raggi X:
diffrazione
Si usano i cristalli come
reticolididiffrazione.
24. Diffrazione da cristalli semplici
SiC,polvereopolicristallo Si(direz.111),monocristallo
2dsin θ=mλ m=1,2,3....
25. Struttura delle macromolecole
Proteine(es.enzimi)eDNA/RNA
(es.virus)sonomolecoleformate
da migliaia di atomi, e formano
cristalli molto complicati,
compostiprincipalmentediH,C,
N,O(atomibiologici,bassoZ).
Tecnica degli atomi pesanti:
atomi ad alto Z diffondono
maggiormente i raggi X. Atomi
pesanti (es. Os, Pt, Au, Hg, Pb)
vengonousaticomemarcatoriin
punticaratteristicidellamolecola.
Studio della differenza delle
figure di diffrazione con e senza
marcatori dà informazioni sulla
strutturadellemacromolecole.
Pattern di
diffrazione e
struttura
tridimensionale
di lac
repressor
26. Diffrazione dalla doppia elica
Il pattern di diffrazione
originalechehapermesso
dicostruireilmodellodella
doppiaelica.
MauriceWilkins&RosalindFranklin
esperimentinel195052
Watson,Crick,andWilson:NobelPrize1962