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LESSON 2:
METHODS OF
PHILOSOPHIZING

LET'S PONDER
Philosophy is concerned
with determining the
concept of truth. Truth lies
at the heart of any inquiry.
Page: 18

LET'S PONDER
Which of the following statements are true?
Page: 18

In today’s society, we encounter a lot of information
• Media and our interactions with our friends,
family, and members of the community.
• Most of the information we receive is helpful,
but some may mislead us or may even be utterly
false.
• Every day we are confronted with news, claims
and announcements from our peers, family
members, figures of authority, the
government, and media.
• How do we know if they telling the truth?
4

In today’s society, we encounter a lot of information
• Philosophers often wrestle with the concept of
truth.
• Knowledge must be truthful to gain validity
and acceptance.
• For example, when we answer a “True or False”
test, we judge if the statements we read are
true or false. This means that statements may
have truth or may not have truth.
• Statements about the world or reality are
called “propositions” and these propositions
may or may not carry truth. Propositions are
usually stated as short statements or sentences.
5

WHAT IS TRUTH
& WHY IS IT
IMPORTANT?
6

1.
KNOWLEDGE
 The clear awareness and understanding of
something. It is the product of questions that
allow for clear answers provided by facts.
 Our knowledge is comprised of ideas and
beliefs that we know to be true.

“
I know that...
I know why...
I know how...
One important aspect of knowledge- it is based on
reality. This simply means that what we know is what
is observable or evident in the real world.
8

2.
facts
 Propositions or statements which
are observed to be real or truthful

“
Example: “I know that fish live in water.”
How do we know?
Because fish really do live in water.
10

3.
CLAIM
 Statements that are not evidently or
immediately known to be true
 They require further examination to
establish whether it is true or false.

“
Example:
“I know that my school is the best school in the
city.”
You may know that reading is a better activity than
playing basketball but the truth of your statement
will be contested by other people.
12

How do we know if something is TRUE?
■ Ancient Greek Philosophers approached the
problem of truth by looking at the nature
of knowledge and how we know what we
know.
■ We assume that everything we know about
this world is true. But philosophers who
pondered upon the origins of knowledge
doubted everything there is to know
about themselves and the world.
13

EXAMPLE:
■I am alive.
■I have a body.
■I can breathe.
14

■ As it drives our desire to discover truth. In
philosophy, systematic doubt is employed to
determine truth. This means that every
statement, claim, evidence, and is scrutinized
and analysed.
■Nothing is taken as true unless there is
sufficient reason and evidence to prove that
is indeed true.
Doubt has very important purpose in philosophy
15

EXAMPLE:
■Am I alive?
■Do I have a body?
■Can I breathe?
16

■ Do you have a pulse? Can you feel your
heartbeat?
■Do you have arms, legs and feet?
■Try to take a deep breath, then exhale.
Were you ble to do it?
■If your answer is “yes” then you can
conclude with certainty that.....
Now, Examine yourself
17

you can now
say...
■I am alive!
■I have a body!
■I can breathe!
18

1.
A BELIEF is true if...
it can be justified or provE
THROUGH the use of one’s
senses.
19

EXAMPLE:
■I am a Filipino.
Can we use our senses to prove this
satements as fact?
20

■Filipino (noun):
-A native of the Philipine Island.
-A citizen of the Reublic of the
Philippines
We can look at a dictionary
21

2.
it is based on facts.
22

Are you now
convinced that you are
a filipino?
If not....
23

&
Ask your
parents or
other
relatives.
Look for
official
documents
that prove
you are a
Filipino.
We can try the following...
24

When all of your
family members
answered “Yes!”...
Then you are a Filipino.
25
👪

3.
you Get a consensus and
people agree on a
common belief.
26

BUT
this approach has certain limitations.
Getting everyone
agree on
something
may not make that belief true.
27

4.
there are official
documents/ supporting
facts.
28

Birthcertifiate
shows factual
information
regarding your
birth.
Since it is
issued by an
istitution that
the documens
are truthful.
BUT,
this also
has a
limitation
Looking at official documents
29

EVIDENCE
especially documents can be forged or
falsified.
A person may be
issued with
documents
but it may contain wrong information
or typographical error.
30

if your name is
mispelled in your
birthcertificate
DOES YOUR IDENTITY CHANGE?
31

Example:
 I can ride a bike/ Can I ride a
bike?
 I can fry an egg/ Can I fry an egg?
32

■The obvious answer would be, is to
actually ride it cook it.--- BUT, some would
argue that the proof is not only in the act but
also in the product.
■This means that you should not only show
that you can fry an egg but that also you can
make delicious fried eggs.
How will you prove that you can really cook an egg?
33

5.
a person can prove a
statement through an
action.
34

6.
philosophers argue that a
bELIEF is true if...
it is subjected to tests to
determine the truth
35

2nd JOURNAL
OUTPUT
Apply systematic doubt in
analyzing the following
sentences.
PAGE: 25
36

1. It takes me 30 minutes to walk from my home to
school.
2. Living near the school is better because we
don’t have to spend much for transportation.
3. My sister ate the last piece of pizza.
4. My sister is a selfish person because she ate the
last piece and didn’t share it with me.
5. The police firmly pushed the suspect to his
kneed and placed him in handcuffs.
6. The aggressive manner by which the police
arrested the suspect is an example of brutality
that characterizes our police force.
Let us Analyze…
37

Which of the following
statements are similar?
Let's rearrange them.

It takes me 30 minutes to walk
from my home to school.
Living near the school is
better because we don’t
have to spend much for
transportation.
My sister ate the last piece of
pizza.
My sister is a selfish person
because she ate the last piece
and didn’t share it with me.
The police firmly pushed the
suspect to his kneed and
placed him in handcuffs.
The aggressive manner by
which the police arrested the
suspect is an example of
brutality that characterizes
our police force.
Which column has statements that are more factual?
39

It takes me 30 minutes to walk
from my home to school.
Living near the school is
better because we don’t
have to spend much for
transportation.
My sister ate the last piece of
pizza.
My sister is a selfish person
because she ate the last piece
and didn’t share it with me.
The police firmly pushed the
suspect to his kneed and
placed him in handcuffs.
The aggressive manner by
which the police arrested the
suspect is an example of
brutality that characterizes
our police force.
Which column has statements that are more factual?
40
FACTUAL OPINION

How can
philosophy guide
us in
distinguishing
41

OPINION
 Comprised of statements which not
only give facts but also provide
conclusions or perspectives regarding
certain situations.
 They may advance a belief about
certain things or provide
explanations.
 The bases for making arguments
and convincing people that a
certain claim is a fact. They are
often influenced by bias.

CONCLU
SION
 Judgement based on certain facts.

beliefs
 Statements that express convictions that are not
easily and clearly explained by facts.
 To judge the truthfulness of a belief, we must also
consider things such as the person’s experiences
and views.

beliefs
 Example: “I believe that God put me on this Earth
to spread his message of love.”

Explanati
on
 Statements that assume the claim to be true and
provide reasons why the statement is true.
 Example: Statement 4: My sister is selfish
because...

Argumen
ts
 Series of statements that provide reasons to
convince the reader or listener that a claim or
opinion is truthful.
 They often take the form of statements that are
either claims of facts and are phrased in such a way
that they seem reasonable.

Argumen
ts
 Example: Encountered in formal debates.

LOGIC
- Is the branch of philosophy that focuses on the
analysis of arguments.

3rd JOURNAL
OUTPUT
A. Imagine that you are
part of the conversation,
how will you react to the
statements?
B. Give a reaction to the
article Describe how you
will determine the truth of
the claims given
PAGE: 28-29
50

What should we
consider when
looking at
ARGUMENTS or
OPINIONS?
51

Argumen
ts
 Series of statements that provide reasons to
convince the reader or listener that a claim or
opinion is truthful.
 However, a number of arguments may be based on
faulty reasoning.

FALLACY
(Kamalian)
 An idea that a lot of people think is true but is in
fact false
 A misleading argument

FALLACY CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE
Ad hominem Attacking the person
instead of the
argument itself
Of course he believes that the
government is flawed, he is a
rebel and a Communist
Ad baculum
(appeal to force)
Using the threat of force
or an undesirable event
to advance an argument
If you do not agree with my
political opinions, you will
receive flat 70 on your
card.
Ad misericordiam
(appeal to pity)
Using emotions such as
pity and sympathy
You cant fire me, I have a wife
and 12 kids who will go
hungry if I lose this job.
Ad populum
(appeal to majority
or bandwagon)
The idea is presented as
acceptable because a
lot of people accept it
Every boy your age already has
a girlfriend, you should go find
one!
Ad antiquitatem
(appeal to
tradition)
The idea is acceptable
because it has been
true for a long time
Marriage has traditionally been
between a man and a woman;
therefore, gay marriage should
not be allowed.
Ad verecundiam ‘misusing’ an
authority
4 out of 5 dentists agree that brushing your
teeth makes your life meaningful.
Richard Dawkins, an evolutionary biologist
and perhaps the foremost expert in the field,
says that evolution is true. Therefore, it's
true.
(appeal to
authority)

FALLACY CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE
Fallacy of
Composition
Assuming that what is true
of a part is true for the
whole
Each brick in that building weighs less than
a pound. Therefore, the building weighs
less than a pound.
Hydrogen is not wet. Oxygen is not wet.
Therefore, water (H2O) is not wet.
Fallacy of Division Assuming that what is true
for the whole is true for its
parts
You come from a family of doctors and lawyers! Surely,
you can do better in this course!
I heard that the Catholic Church was involved in a sex
scandal cover-up. Therefore, my 102-year-old Catholic
neighbor, who frequently attends Church, is guilty as
well!
Hasty
Generalization
The generalization is
reached too hastily. There
are too few instances or
evidences to support such a
conclusion.
You can't speak French. I can’t
speak French. Carla can't speak
French; therefore, nobody in this
school can speak French.
Post Hoc
(false cause)
Assuming a ‘cause-and-
effect’ relationship
between unrelated events
Every time you wear your red
scarf, you cry. You should get rid
of it.

BIAS
(PAGKILING)
 The personal views of the person presenting it.
 They are not necessarily errors in reasoning, but
refer to tendencies or influences which affect
the views of people.

BIAS CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE
Correspondence
bias
(Fundamental
attribution
error)
Tendency to judge a
person’s personality by
his/her actions without
regard for external
factors or situations
The soldiers who fought
in the war are all
bloodthirsty murderers.
Confirmation bias the tendency to look for
and accept information in
a way that confirms one's
own beliefs and reject
ideas that go against it
How can I accept his view
that there is no God? I am a
Christian!

BIAS CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE
Conflict of interest A person or group is
connected to or has a
vested interest in the
issue
As the daughter of the
accused, I believe that I have
the right to express my
opinion on the issue of his
alleged corrupt practices.
Cultural bias Analyzing an event or
issue based on one’s
cultural standards
I do not agree with this
Western practice of placing
the elderly in retirement
homes.
We Filipinos take care of
our family members.
Framing Focusing on a certain
aspect of a problem
while ignoring other
aspects
Preliminary evidence has
still not pointed out the
actual cause of the plane
crash, but investigators are
currently focusing on the
possibility of pilot error.
Hindsight
(knew-it-all-along
phenomenon)
Is when, after an event
occurs, we feel we
already knew what was
going to happen
When you put a glass on the
edge of a table and you start
cleaning and bumped the glass
and it fell to the ground and

HOW CAN AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE
DIFFERNCE BETWEEN TRUTH AND
OPINION LEAD US TO WISDOM?
59
 Understanding of opinions and facts and the
means to distinguish one from the other
can further improve our understanding and
appreciation of varied views and ideas. The
ability to determine truth goes hand in
hand with the holistic perspective and
enables us to make wiser decisions,
especially in choosing the ideas and views
which we find acceptable.

HOW CAN AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE
DIFFERNCE BETWEEN TRUTH AND
OPINION LEAD US TO WISDOM?
60
 An individual cannot live his or her life just
agreeing with everybody he or she meets. A
critical mind aided by philosophy can help us form
our own personal point of view that can guide us
in making decisions and actions when faced with a
problem.
 Philosophy can help us determine ideas that are
truthful and acceptable which we can then use
to form our own views regarding certain
matters.

Let us imagine several individuals reacting to a
news in television and radio about teh recent
killings of drug pushers and addicts throughout the
country
MANG
ANTONIO
ATTY.
MACARAIG
MRS. LOPEZ
FATHER GOMEZ MR. TOLENTINO MRS. ALONZO
61

NOW, LET'S LOOK AT THEIR BACKGROUND
MANG
ANTONIO
A citizen who lives in a
barangay where the
presence of drugs
addicts is a problem
ATTY.
MACARAIG
A lawyer and a citizen
MRS. LOPEZ
A housewife whose
family lives in a
community
FATHER GOMEZ
A priest
MR. TOLENTINO
A father whose
daughter was raped
and murdered by drug
addicts.
MRS. ALONZO
A mother whose
son is a drug addict.
62

 Figuring out the backgrounds of the people
who made the statements allows us to
undertand the context by which they formed
their views and opinions on the issue.

64
VIEWS REGARDING DRUG ADDICT
Page: 34

65
VIEWS ON THE KILLING OF THE DRUG ADDICTS
PAGE: 34

Which among the opinions is most similar to your
own personal bias regarding the issue of the drug
addicts?

PHILOSOPHY CAN HELP US EXAMINE VARIOUS VIEWS ON
RELEVANT ISSUES AND OUR LIVES. AN OBJECTIVE
EVALUATION OF OPINIONS AND AN AWARENESS OF OUR
OWN PERSONAL BIASES CAN HELP US MAKE WISE
CHOICES RAGRDING THE MOST ACCEPTABLE VIEWS TO
ADOPT AND THE RIGHT ACTIONS TO UNDERTAKE.
67

Thanks!
Any questions?
68
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