The document discusses various topics relating to microbial genetics including translation, regulation of gene expression, mutation, genetic transfer and recombination, and plasmids. It describes how translation converts mRNA into proteins using start and stop codons. Regulation of bacterial genes is discussed, including constitutive enzymes that are always expressed and inducible/repressible enzymes that are only expressed when needed. Different types of mutations like base substitutions, frameshifts, and their causes such as radiation are also outlined.
The document discusses genome rearrangements and chromosomal evolution. It begins by showing the X chromosomes of the mouse and human genomes and notes they diverged from an unknown common ancestor approximately 80 million years ago. It then poses questions about reconstructing the ancestral genome and the evolutionary scenario that transformed one genome into the other. The document goes on to discuss concepts like reversals, translocations, sorting genomes with rearrangements, and computing the rearrangement distance between genomes. It proposes modeling rearrangements as 2-break operations to more simply study rearrangements between multiple genomes.
The document discusses various topics relating to microbial genetics including translation, regulation of gene expression, mutation, genetic transfer and recombination, and plasmids. It describes how translation converts mRNA into proteins using start and stop codons. Regulation of bacterial genes is discussed, including constitutive enzymes that are always expressed and inducible/repressible enzymes that are only expressed when needed. Different types of mutations like base substitutions, frameshifts, and their causes such as radiation are also outlined.
The document discusses genome rearrangements and chromosomal evolution. It begins by showing the X chromosomes of the mouse and human genomes and notes they diverged from an unknown common ancestor approximately 80 million years ago. It then poses questions about reconstructing the ancestral genome and the evolutionary scenario that transformed one genome into the other. The document goes on to discuss concepts like reversals, translocations, sorting genomes with rearrangements, and computing the rearrangement distance between genomes. It proposes modeling rearrangements as 2-break operations to more simply study rearrangements between multiple genomes.
The document discusses genome assembly and finishing processes. It begins by outlining typical project goals of completely restoring the genome and producing a high-quality consensus sequence. It then describes the evolution of sequencing technologies from Sanger to newer platforms and their impact on draft assemblies. Key steps in the assembly and finishing process include library preparation, assembly, identifying gaps, and improving consensus quality.
The cell membrane separates the intracellular components of the cell from the external environment. It is composed of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins and acts as a selective barrier. The cytoplasm contains organelles that carry out specialized functions like the mitochondria, which generates energy, and the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, which modify and transport proteins. Lysosomes contain enzymes that break down materials inside and outside the cell. Together, these organelles and their membranes comprise the endomembrane system, which manufactures components and transports materials within the cell.
The document discusses gene expression and regulation in eukaryotes. It covers several key points in 3 sentences:
Eukaryotic genes require complex regulatory systems involving chromatin remodeling and transcription factors to initiate expression, unlike bacterial genes which can be transcribed without regulatory proteins. Development in multicellular organisms is controlled by signaling between cells using hormones and diffusible receptors which act as transcriptional regulators. Gene expression patterns in fruit flies establish polarity, segment the body, and determine segment identities through maternal, segmentation, and homeotic genes, providing insights into human developmental gene regulation.
Proteins are composed of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds to form polypeptide chains. There are 20 standard amino acids that make up proteins. Proteins have four levels of structure - primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acids. Secondary structures form due to hydrogen bonding between amino acids and include alpha helices and beta sheets. Tertiary structure involves folding of secondary structures into a compact 3D structure. Hydrogen bonds, disulfide bridges, and hydrophobic interactions stabilize tertiary structure.
The document discusses several DNA repair mechanisms including mismatch repair, base excision repair, nucleotide excision repair, direct repair, and recombinational repair. It also describes different types of recombination including homologous recombination, site-specific recombination, and transposition. Finally, it discusses mechanisms of meiotic recombination including gene conversion and resolution of Holliday structures.
The document discusses chromosomes, mitosis, meiosis, and apoptosis. It explains that chromosomes contain DNA and genes, and replicate during cell division. Mitosis produces genetically identical cells while meiosis creates gametes with half the number of chromosomes. Apoptosis is programmed cell death that occurs through caspase activation and DNA fragmentation, while necrosis results from external damage.
The document discusses metabolism and metabolic pathways. It summarizes that catabolism provides energy and building blocks for anabolism through metabolic pathways. Metabolic pathways involve enzymatically catalyzed reactions, with enzymes determining the pathways. Reaction rates are influenced by factors like temperature, pH, substrate concentration, and inhibitors. The document then discusses specific metabolic pathways like glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain which are involved in breaking down carbohydrates to release energy through cellular respiration.
The document discusses the main types of biological macromolecules - proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. It provides details on their structures, functions and examples of each type of macromolecule. The key macromolecules discussed are proteins, which are composed of amino acids, and nucleic acids like DNA and RNA, which provide genetic instructions and are made of nucleotides containing nitrogen bases. Energy production in cells is also summarized, with ATP being generated through substrate-level phosphorylation or chemiosmosis using electron transport chains.
Globular proteins are spherical proteins that contain heme as a prosthetic group. Globular heme proteins function as electron carriers, parts of enzyme active sites, and carriers of oxygen and carbon dioxide like hemoglobin and myoglobin. Myoglobin stores oxygen in muscle cells and facilitates oxygen transport between hemoglobin and cells. Hemoglobin transports oxygen in red blood cells through a cooperative binding mechanism between its four heme groups that allows for high oxygen affinity when oxygen levels are high. Both proteins bind oxygen reversibly to their heme groups through interactions with proximal and distal histidine residues.
Cloning involves inserting foreign DNA into a vector, which is then taken up by host cells. The host cells replicate, producing multiple copies of the recombinant DNA. Libraries contain fragments of DNA from a source inserted randomly into vectors. Genomic libraries contain chromosomal DNA fragments, while cDNA libraries contain mRNA sequences converted to DNA. Expression libraries contain cDNAs in vectors allowing protein expression. Cloning allows isolation and expression of genes, enabling study and production of proteins.
The document summarizes various genetic techniques including PCR, restriction mapping, the human genome project, in situ hybridization, and cloning the gene responsible for alkaptonuria. It provides an example of how PCR, genomic libraries, DNA sequencing, and other methods were used to clone the HGO gene involved in alkaptonuria. Ethical considerations are discussed around using genetic testing to predict late-onset genetic disorders in fetuses.
This lecture discusses genome organization and structure. It covers topics like genome size, DNA hybridization, Cot curves, repeated sequences, introns and exons. Cot curves show that apparently large genomes are filled with repetitive sequences, resolving the C-value paradox. There are two types of repeated sequences - tandem repeats like satellites and interspersed repeats like retrotransposons and SINEs. Genome structure includes features like linear/circular chromosomes, centromeres, telomeres, GC content distributions. Genes contain exons and introns, and detecting open reading frames is a way to predict genes, though it works better in prokaryotes than eukaryotes due to intron sizes.
1. Electrophoresis separates nucleic acids and proteins by size and charge using agarose or acrylamide gels.
2. Southern blots allow detection of specific DNA sequences by transferring DNA from a gel to a membrane and hybridizing a labeled probe.
3. Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) detect variations in restriction sites between individuals' DNA that can be used for identification.
The document summarizes various aspects of RNA processing including splicing, capping, polyadenylation, and modifications of tRNA and rRNA. It discusses the four classes of introns and mechanisms of splicing for group I and group II introns. Alternative splicing can produce different mRNA isoforms through exon skipping or use of cryptic splice sites.
The document discusses various topics relating to microbial genetics including translation, regulation of gene expression, mutation, genetic transfer and recombination, and plasmids. It describes how translation converts mRNA into proteins using start and stop codons. Regulation of bacterial genes is discussed, including constitutive enzymes that are always expressed and inducible/repressible enzymes that are only expressed when needed. Different types of mutations like base substitutions, frameshifts, and their causes such as radiation are also outlined.
2. Mendel Mendel systematized the study of the traits, or characters, in the garden pea Theres Gregor Although he published his work around the time of Darwin, the work was largely lost Mendels work Creates a simple way of predicting the outcome of matings A genotype can be determined knowing the phenotypes of the plants Predicted the existence of meiosis
3. Mendels laws I 1 st law (segregation) based on the observation that characteristics disappear and reappear in peas Two members of a gene pair segregate from each other during the formation of gametes such that half the gametes carry one member and the other half carry the other member Offspring from parental genotypes of R/r X R/r receive one of the two alleles from each parent. The dominant allele R determines the phenotype The ratio of dominant (R) to recessive (r) phenotypes would be 3:1
4. Mendelian Genetics R / r X R / r S/S S/s s/S s/s 村 遜 村 S/s X S/s R / R R / r r / R r / r R/R = 村 R/r = 遜 r/r = 村 The probability that an offspring will have a certain genotype is predictable knowing parental genotypes Segregation occurs here in Meiosis I in both parents Meiosis I II
6. Mendels laws II 2 nd law (independent assortment) based on experiments that showed different characteristics behaved independently Different gene pairs assort independently One characteristic with 3:1 ratio when seen with another characteristic with a 3:1 ratio yielded a 9:3:3:1 ratio In the previous example, the four types of possible phenotypes would be R S, R s, r S and r s (3:1 X 3:1 = 9:3:3:1)
7. 1 Chromosomal Basis of Heredity A gene is a unit of heredity Genes are carried on DNA DNA is contained within chromosomes as chromatin
8. Genes on the same chromosome are inherited together, but not always the frequency of recombination was related to the distance between the genes on a chromosome,