Genome mapping identifies and records the location of genes and distances between genes on chromosomes. Alfred Sturtevant created the first genetic map of Drosophila in 1913 by proposing that crossover frequency could determine gene location. Techniques like linkage analysis using two-point and three-point test crosses estimate distances between genes based on inheritance patterns. Genetic maps describe gene arrangement but have limitations due to recombination hotspots and need for high crossover scoring. Gene mapping is important for identifying disease genes and trait genes in plants, animals and humans.
1. Griffith's experiments in 1928 showed that heat-killed type IIIS bacteria could transform live type IIR bacteria into the virulent type IIIS strain.
2. Avery, Macleod and McCarty repeated Griffith's experiments in 1944 using purified extracts and found that DNA is the transforming agent.
3. Hershey and Chase provided further evidence in 1952 using radioactive labeling to track the entry of bacteriophage components into infected bacteria, showing that DNA rather than protein enters bacterial cells during infection.
1) The document discusses various types of non-Mendelian gene interactions including incomplete dominance, co-dominance, supplementary interaction, complementary interaction, and epistasis.
2) In incomplete dominance, alleles are not completely dominant or recessive and produce an intermediate phenotype in heterozygotes, like pink flowers from red and white parents.
3) Co-dominance occurs when both alleles are fully expressed in heterozygotes, such as AB blood from alleles for A and B antigens.
4) Epistasis involves one gene masking the expression of another gene.
This document discusses epigenetics and provides an overview of key concepts. It begins with a brief history of epigenetics research from the 1940s to present day. It then defines epigenetics as the study of heritable alterations in gene expression that do not involve changes to DNA sequence. Several epigenetic mechanisms are identified, including DNA methylation, histone modification, and non-coding RNA. The document notes that epigenetic changes are involved in various diseases and disorders. It also discusses how environmental, behavioral, dietary, and psychological factors can influence epigenetics.
RECOMBINATION MECHANISM
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
RECOMBINATION
MITOTIC AND MEIOTIC RECOMBINATION
CLASSES OF RECOMBINATION
HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION
DOUBLE-STRAND BREAK MODEL
DNA RECOMBINATION
Aminoacyl tRNA synthetases charge tRNAs with their cognate amino acids in two steps: adenylylation of the amino acid followed by transfer of the adenylylated amino acid to the tRNA. There are two classes of aminoacyl tRNA synthetases distinguished by structure and mechanism. The synthetases recognize specific tRNA elements to ensure accurate aminoacylation. Proofreading and editing mechanisms allow discrimination between similar amino acids and correction of errors to maintain high fidelity of aminoacyl tRNA formation.
Epigenetics refers to heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve changes to the DNA sequence. These changes are mediated by mechanisms such as chromatin remodeling, histone modifications, DNA methylation, and non-coding RNAs. Despite having identical DNA, different cell types express different genes due to cell-specific epigenetic codes involving histone modifications and DNA methylation patterns. Techniques such as bisulfite sequencing are used to study DNA methylation and how it contributes to epigenetic regulation of genes.
Barbara McClintock first discovered transposable elements in corn in the 1940.
Transposable elements, transposons or even jumping genes are regions of genome that can move from one place to another.
The first transposable element is discovered in bacteria is called insertion sequences or IS elements. It turns out that these are the simplest transposons.
The final method of changing the DNA in a genome that we will consider is油transposition, which is the movement of DNA from one location to another. Segments of DNA with this ability to move are called油transposable elements.
This document discusses mitochondrial inheritance in humans. It begins by describing mitochondria and their role in cellular respiration and ATP synthesis. Mitochondrial DNA is circular and encodes for proteins, tRNAs and rRNAs. Mutations can occur in mtDNA and be heteroplasmic. Mitochondrial disorders are maternally inherited and can result from mutations in mtDNA or nuclear DNA. Common syndromes include MELAS, MERRF and LHON. Diagnosis involves family history, clinical evaluation, biochemical testing, muscle biopsy and genetic testing. Treatment focuses on symptom management and supplementation. Mitochondrial defects can impact female and male fertility by reducing ATP production necessary for processes like oocyte maturation and sperm motility. New therapies involving
The hedgehog signaling pathway is a key developmental pathway that is conserved across species. It regulates organ formation during embryonic development by controlling cell growth and differentiation. Abnormal activation of the hedgehog pathway has been linked to several human cancers, primarily through mutations in pathway regulators like PTCH and SMO that lead to ligand-independent signaling. Inhibitors of the hedgehog pathway have potential as cancer therapeutics by blocking the activity of proteins like SMO.
Almost 98 of the human genome does not encode proteins
o The non coding transcripts less than 200 bases are called small non
coding RNA and comprise of tRNA, rRNA, miRNA, snoRNA, piwi
interacting RNA (pi RNA)
o RNA molecules that are of more than 200 bases in length are known
as long non coding RNA (
o lncRNAs are more than 200 nucleotides in length and also can be
more than 2 Kb
o Such long noncoding RNAs usually have limited coding potential due
to the absence of open reading frames, 3 UTR and termination
region while their coding potential is less than 100 amino acids
Epigenetics is the study of mechanisms that control which genes are switched on or off. It involves epigenetic mechanisms like methylation and histone modification that manipulate the genome without changing the DNA sequence. Experiments show that exposures like chemicals, smoking, diet, and stress during pregnancy can cause epigenetic changes that affect gene expression and traits in subsequent generations. A study in Sweden found that poor harvests and malnutrition during pregnancy were associated with higher risk of cardiovascular disease in offspring, and periods of feast after famine extended this risk to grandchildren through epigenetic inheritance. Understanding epigenetics is important for studying evolution and treating diseases like cancer, genetic disorders, immunity and neuropsychiatric conditions.
Genome mapping identifies and records the location of genes and distances between genes on chromosomes. Alfred Sturtevant created the first genetic map of Drosophila in 1913 by proposing that crossover frequency could determine gene location. Techniques like linkage analysis using two-point and three-point test crosses estimate distances between genes based on inheritance patterns. Genetic maps describe gene arrangement but have limitations due to recombination hotspots and need for high crossover scoring. Gene mapping is important for identifying disease genes and trait genes in plants, animals and humans.
1. Griffith's experiments in 1928 showed that heat-killed type IIIS bacteria could transform live type IIR bacteria into the virulent type IIIS strain.
2. Avery, Macleod and McCarty repeated Griffith's experiments in 1944 using purified extracts and found that DNA is the transforming agent.
3. Hershey and Chase provided further evidence in 1952 using radioactive labeling to track the entry of bacteriophage components into infected bacteria, showing that DNA rather than protein enters bacterial cells during infection.
1) The document discusses various types of non-Mendelian gene interactions including incomplete dominance, co-dominance, supplementary interaction, complementary interaction, and epistasis.
2) In incomplete dominance, alleles are not completely dominant or recessive and produce an intermediate phenotype in heterozygotes, like pink flowers from red and white parents.
3) Co-dominance occurs when both alleles are fully expressed in heterozygotes, such as AB blood from alleles for A and B antigens.
4) Epistasis involves one gene masking the expression of another gene.
This document discusses epigenetics and provides an overview of key concepts. It begins with a brief history of epigenetics research from the 1940s to present day. It then defines epigenetics as the study of heritable alterations in gene expression that do not involve changes to DNA sequence. Several epigenetic mechanisms are identified, including DNA methylation, histone modification, and non-coding RNA. The document notes that epigenetic changes are involved in various diseases and disorders. It also discusses how environmental, behavioral, dietary, and psychological factors can influence epigenetics.
RECOMBINATION MECHANISM
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
RECOMBINATION
MITOTIC AND MEIOTIC RECOMBINATION
CLASSES OF RECOMBINATION
HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION
DOUBLE-STRAND BREAK MODEL
DNA RECOMBINATION
Aminoacyl tRNA synthetases charge tRNAs with their cognate amino acids in two steps: adenylylation of the amino acid followed by transfer of the adenylylated amino acid to the tRNA. There are two classes of aminoacyl tRNA synthetases distinguished by structure and mechanism. The synthetases recognize specific tRNA elements to ensure accurate aminoacylation. Proofreading and editing mechanisms allow discrimination between similar amino acids and correction of errors to maintain high fidelity of aminoacyl tRNA formation.
Epigenetics refers to heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve changes to the DNA sequence. These changes are mediated by mechanisms such as chromatin remodeling, histone modifications, DNA methylation, and non-coding RNAs. Despite having identical DNA, different cell types express different genes due to cell-specific epigenetic codes involving histone modifications and DNA methylation patterns. Techniques such as bisulfite sequencing are used to study DNA methylation and how it contributes to epigenetic regulation of genes.
Barbara McClintock first discovered transposable elements in corn in the 1940.
Transposable elements, transposons or even jumping genes are regions of genome that can move from one place to another.
The first transposable element is discovered in bacteria is called insertion sequences or IS elements. It turns out that these are the simplest transposons.
The final method of changing the DNA in a genome that we will consider is油transposition, which is the movement of DNA from one location to another. Segments of DNA with this ability to move are called油transposable elements.
This document discusses mitochondrial inheritance in humans. It begins by describing mitochondria and their role in cellular respiration and ATP synthesis. Mitochondrial DNA is circular and encodes for proteins, tRNAs and rRNAs. Mutations can occur in mtDNA and be heteroplasmic. Mitochondrial disorders are maternally inherited and can result from mutations in mtDNA or nuclear DNA. Common syndromes include MELAS, MERRF and LHON. Diagnosis involves family history, clinical evaluation, biochemical testing, muscle biopsy and genetic testing. Treatment focuses on symptom management and supplementation. Mitochondrial defects can impact female and male fertility by reducing ATP production necessary for processes like oocyte maturation and sperm motility. New therapies involving
The hedgehog signaling pathway is a key developmental pathway that is conserved across species. It regulates organ formation during embryonic development by controlling cell growth and differentiation. Abnormal activation of the hedgehog pathway has been linked to several human cancers, primarily through mutations in pathway regulators like PTCH and SMO that lead to ligand-independent signaling. Inhibitors of the hedgehog pathway have potential as cancer therapeutics by blocking the activity of proteins like SMO.
Almost 98 of the human genome does not encode proteins
o The non coding transcripts less than 200 bases are called small non
coding RNA and comprise of tRNA, rRNA, miRNA, snoRNA, piwi
interacting RNA (pi RNA)
o RNA molecules that are of more than 200 bases in length are known
as long non coding RNA (
o lncRNAs are more than 200 nucleotides in length and also can be
more than 2 Kb
o Such long noncoding RNAs usually have limited coding potential due
to the absence of open reading frames, 3 UTR and termination
region while their coding potential is less than 100 amino acids
Epigenetics is the study of mechanisms that control which genes are switched on or off. It involves epigenetic mechanisms like methylation and histone modification that manipulate the genome without changing the DNA sequence. Experiments show that exposures like chemicals, smoking, diet, and stress during pregnancy can cause epigenetic changes that affect gene expression and traits in subsequent generations. A study in Sweden found that poor harvests and malnutrition during pregnancy were associated with higher risk of cardiovascular disease in offspring, and periods of feast after famine extended this risk to grandchildren through epigenetic inheritance. Understanding epigenetics is important for studying evolution and treating diseases like cancer, genetic disorders, immunity and neuropsychiatric conditions.
20160219 F. Malvestiti - DAL CARIOTIPO AL NGS: COME STA CAMBIANDO LA DIAGNOSI...Roberto Scarafia
油
PRIMO INCONTRO DI GENETICA ONCOLOGICA
Ruolo del dato genetico nel percorso diagnostico delle MDS
Anomalie cromosomiche nelle MDS
Dalla citogenetica convenzionale alla citogenetica molecolare
Mutazioni somatiche delle MDS e Patogenesi molecolare
Correlazione genotipo-fenotipo
Ruolo del dato genetico nel percorso diagnostico delle MDS: raccomandazioni ELN
Frequenza delle anomalie cromosomiche
1. The document compares genetic and linguistic diversity in Europe and finds some correlations between the two.
2. Structural features of languages may provide a better basis for comparison than vocabulary. Principal component analysis of genetic and linguistic data show some similarities in clustering.
3. Recent population mixing can account for some inconsistencies between the genetic and linguistic patterns. Overall, geography, genetics, and language are interrelated but influenced by separate evolutionary processes over long time periods.
1. The document discusses three main questions regarding human evolutionary genetics: the debate between hybridization models vs. the Southern dispersal route out of Africa, the coevolution of cultural and biological diversity, and challenges to the persistence of racial paradigms given genomic data.
2. Regarding the first question, the author notes several problems with hybridization hypotheses and presents evidence supporting an earlier dispersal of modern humans out of Africa via a Southern route, avoiding contact with Neanderthals.
3. For the second question, the author reviews evidence that increases in brain size did not necessarily correlate with genes associated with cognitive functions, and that cultural and linguistic changes likely evolved in parallel with biological changes.
4.
Perch辿 alle Olimpiadi le gare di sprint le vincono sempre atleti caraibici, le maratone gli africani dell'est, che per嘆 nel nuoto non combinano niente? Non sar che ci sono differenze razziali? La risposta, ancora una volta, 竪 no.
Test Bank for Foundations of Financial Markets and Institutions, 4th Edition:...orrahnaf
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New Methods of Literacy Research 1st Edition Peggy Albersuxhcablende
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Learning Swift Building Apps for OSX, iOS, and Beyond Jon Manningjelieltoinks
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Designing Intelligent Construction Projects Michael Frahmewoadetozito
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Presentazione della Dichiarazione di Dubai sulle OER alla comunit italiana -...Damiano Orru
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16 variazione cromosomi
1. Capitolo 16
Variazioni della struttura
e del numero dei cromosomi
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
2. Domande 16.
Quali cambiamenti avvengono nella struttura e nel
numero di cromosomi negli Eucarioti?
Quali conseguenze hanno questi cambiamenti sulla
capacit della cellula di entrare in meiosi?
Quali conseguenze hanno questi cambiamenti sulla
sopravvivenza e sul fenotipo degli individui che li
ereditano?
3. Le mutazioni (o aberrazioni) cromosomiche alterano la
struttura o il numero dei cromosomi rispetto al corredo
normale.
1.Delezione
2.Duplicazione
3.Inversione
4.Traslocazione
5.Aneuploidia
6.Poliploidia
4. Figura 16.2
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
1. Delezione
Conseguenze: pseudodominanza.
Alleli recessivi possono manifestarsi a fenotipo se i loro loci sono deleti nel
cromosoma omologo
5. Figura 16.4
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
Sindrome cri-du-chat nelluomo: eterozigosi per una
delezione nel braccio corto del cromosoma 5
(frequenza: 1/50000 nati vivi)
6. Sindrome di Prader-Willi nelluomo: cause multiple, fra cui
eterozigosi per una delezione nel braccio corto del
cromosoma 5 (15q11-q13)
(frequenza: 1/15000 nati vivi)
7. Figura 16.5
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
2. Duplicazione
8. Figura 16.6
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
La duplicazione di un tratto del cromosoma X di Drosophila in cui 竪
contenuto un gene che regola il numero di ommatidi ha generato un allele
dominante legato al sesso, Bar
9. Le duplicazioni geniche hanno portato allevoluzione di famiglie di
geni con funzioni correlate, sullo stesso cromosoma
Regione di regolazione
I geni sono
disposti nello
stesso ordine in
cui sono attivati
nei diversi stadi
dello sviluppo
10. Figura 16.7
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
3. Inversione
11. Figura 16.10
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
4. Traslocazione
12. Figura 16.8
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
Inversioni e traslocazioni provocano
problemi di appaiamento alla meiosi,
con formazione di cromosomi
acentrici o dicentrici, e gameti
sbilanciati
Inversione paracentrica
(non comprendente il centromero)
13. Figura 16.9
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
Inversione pericentrica
(comprendente il centromero)
14. Figura 16.11
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
Traslocazione
15. Figura 16.13
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
Alcuni siti del DNA mostrano una
particolare tendenza alle rotture, con
conseguenti delezioni: siti fragili.
Una rottura in posizione Xq27,3 竪
associata ad un ritardo mentale:
sindrome dellX fragile
16. Non solo la sindrome dellX fragile, ma diverse altre malattie,
mostrano fenomeni di anticipazione, cio竪 insorgenza pi湛 precoce
e sintomi pi湛 severi attraverso le generazioni
Sembrerebbe in contrasto con i principi mendeliani; si 竪 pensato che
dipendesse semplicemente da una diagnosi pi湛 precoce in famiglie note
per avere la malattia, ma non 竪 cos狸.
In corrispondenza dei siti fragili ci sono spesso sequenze
ripetute CAG (poliQ, codificanti per Glutamina)
In fase di replicazione, le
sequenze ripetute scivolano
(chromosome slippage),
causando lallungamento della
regione ripetuta
18. Lallungamento della regione ripetuta provoca linsorgenza di
malattie dominanti, autosomiche o legate allX. La severit dei
sintomi 竪 correlata alla lunghezza dellallele
19. Malattie associate a espansione di triplette CAG
(poly Q, poliglutamina)
Type Gene
Normal PolyQ
repeats
Pathogenic PolyQ
repeats
DRPLA (
Dentatorubropallidoluysian atrophy)
ATN1 or DRPLA 6 - 35 49 - 88
HD (Huntington's disease) HTT (Huntingtin) 10 - 35 35+
SBMA (Spinobulbar muscular atrophy
or Kennedy disease)
Androgen receptor on the
X chromosome.
9 - 36 38 - 62
SCA1 (Spinocerebellar ataxia Type 1) ATXN1 6 - 35 49 - 88
SCA2 (Spinocerebellar ataxia Type 2) ATXN2 14 - 32 33 - 77
SCA3 (Spinocerebellar ataxia Type 3
or Machado-Joseph disease)
ATXN3 12 - 40 55 - 86
SCA6 (Spinocerebellar ataxia Type 6) CACNA1A 4 - 18 21 - 30
SCA7 (Spinocerebellar ataxia Type 7) ATXN7 7 - 17 38 - 120
SCA17 (Spinocerebellar ataxia Type
17)
TBP 25 - 42 47 - 63
premutazione mutazione
20. Malattie associate a espansione di altre triplette
Type Gene Codon
Normal/
wildtype
Pathogenic
FRAXA (
Fragile X syndrome)
FMR1, on the X-
chromosome
CGG 6 - 53 230+
FXTAS (
Fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome
)
FMR1, on the X-
chromosome
CGG 6 - 53 55-200
FRAXE (
Fragile XE mental retardation
)
AFF2 or FMR2, on the X-
chromosome
GCC 6 - 35 200+
FRDA (Friedreich's ataxia
)
FXN or X25, (frataxin) GAA 7 - 34 100+
DM (Myotonic dystrophy) DMPK CTG 5 - 37 50+
SCA8 (
Spinocerebellar ataxia
Type 8)
OSCA or SCA8 CTG 16 - 37 110 - 250
SCA12 (
Spinocerebellar ataxia
Type 12)
PPP2R2B or SCA12
nnn
On 5' end
7 - 28 66 - 78
premutazione mutazione
21. Figura 16.15
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
Forme di
aneuploidia
22. Figura 16.16
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
Segregazione nelle
meiosi di individui
aneuploidi
23. Figura 16.17
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
Trisomia 21 o sindrome di Down
24. Figura 16.20
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
Trisomia 13 o sindrome di Patau
25. Figura 16.21
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
Trisomia 18 o sindrome di Edwards
26. Figura 16.18
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
Traslocazioni robertsoniane
27. Sintesi 16
1. Ci sono 4 tipi fondamentali di aberrazione cromosomica: delezione,
duplicazione, inversione e traslocazione, e 2 forme di variazione
nel numero di cromosomi: aneuploidia, poliploidia
2. Le aberrazioni cromosomiche possono portare a problemi di
appaiamento in meiosi e conseguente produzione di gameti non
vitali
3. Solo le aneuploidie per cromosomi piccoli sono compatibili con la
vita, e hanno comunque effetti fenotipici gravi
4. Una classe di malattie 竪 legata allespansione di triplette,
generalmente CAG. contrassegnata dal fenomeno
dellanticipazione, e provocata da fenomeni di slippage
cromosomico durante la replicazione del DNA