1. The human genome is very similar to the chimpanzee genome, with individual genetic diversity among humans being the lowest of all primates.
2. While population differences among humans are also relatively low, genetic studies show inconsistent clustering of genotypes across genes and loci.
3. Models of human migration out of Africa best explain observed genetic patterns, with gradients of diversity correlated with distance from Africa.
This document summarizes research on human genetic population structure and diversity. The key points are:
- 85% of human genetic variation exists within populations, 10% among continental groups, and 5% among populations within the same continent.
- Clustering analyses of genetic data yield inconsistent groupings depending on the traits or markers used, and populations form a continuous gradient without clear boundaries.
- The patterns of genetic diversity are consistent with an origin of modern humans in Africa followed by serial founder effects during dispersal, around 56,000 years ago.
1. The document compares genetic and linguistic diversity in Europe and finds some correlations between the two.
2. Structural features of languages may provide a better basis for comparison than vocabulary. Principal component analysis of genetic and linguistic data show some similarities in clustering.
3. Recent population mixing can account for some inconsistencies between the genetic and linguistic patterns. Overall, geography, genetics, and language are interrelated but influenced by separate evolutionary processes over long time periods.
1. The document discusses three main questions regarding human evolutionary genetics: the debate between hybridization models vs. the Southern dispersal route out of Africa, the coevolution of cultural and biological diversity, and challenges to the persistence of racial paradigms given genomic data.
2. Regarding the first question, the author notes several problems with hybridization hypotheses and presents evidence supporting an earlier dispersal of modern humans out of Africa via a Southern route, avoiding contact with Neanderthals.
3. For the second question, the author reviews evidence that increases in brain size did not necessarily correlate with genes associated with cognitive functions, and that cultural and linguistic changes likely evolved in parallel with biological changes.
4.
Perch辿 alle Olimpiadi le gare di sprint le vincono sempre atleti caraibici, le maratone gli africani dell'est, che per嘆 nel nuoto non combinano niente? Non sar che ci sono differenze razziali? La risposta, ancora una volta, 竪 no.
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2. Programma del corso
1. Diversit genetica
2. Equilibrio di Hardy-Weinberg
3. Inbreeding
4. Linkage disequilibrium
5. Mutazione
6. Deriva genetica
7. Flusso genico e varianze genetiche
8. Selezione
9. Mantenimento dei polimorfismi e teoria neutrale
10. Introduzione alla teoria coalescente
11. Struttura e storia della popolazione umana
+ Lettura critica di articoli
15. Fitness
Misura la speranza di progenie.
Ha due componenti, legate a differenze in
fertilit e mortalit
Genotipo AA Aa aa
Vita riproduttiva media 2.0 1.8 1.4
Fitness di sopravvivenza 2.0/2.0 =1.0 1.8/2.0 =0.9 1.4/2.0 =0.7
Genotipo AA Aa aa
N medio discendenti 2.4 2.4 3.0
Fitness riproduttiva 2.4/3.0 =0.8 2.4/3.0=0.8 3.0/3.0=1.0
16. Fitness
Genotipo AA Aa aa
Fitness riprod. 0.8 0.8 1.0
Fitness sopravv. 1.0 0.9 0.7
Prodotto 0.8 0.72 0.7
Fitness totale 0.8/0.8=1.0 0.72/0.8=0.9 0.7/0.88
Complessivamente:
Coefficiente di selezione: s = 1
28. Effetti della selezione: Unequazione generale
Genotype油油油油油油油油油AA油油油油油油油油油油油油油油油油油油AB油油油油油油油油油油油油油油油油BB油油油油油油油油油Total
油______________________________________________________
(1) Frequency p2
+ 2pq + q2
= 1
before selection
(2) Fitness W0
油油油油油油油油油油油油油油油油油油W1
油油油油油油油油油油油油油油油油油W2
(3) Relative p2
W0
+ 2pqW1
+ q2
W2
=
Contribution
(4) Frequency p2
W0
/ + 2pqW1
/ + q2
W2
/ = / = 1
after selection
29. Effetti della selezione: Riassunto
Contro il recessivo q<0 Perdita dellallele
Contro il dominante p<0 Perdita dellallele
A vantaggio
delleterozigote
p< o > 0 Equilibrio
A svantaggio
delleterozigote
p< o > 0 Fissazione dellallele pi湛
frequente
Dipendente dalla
frequenza
p< o > 0 Equilibrio
30. Equilibrio selezione-mutazione al locus DMD
portatrici affetti
Gen. P0 A B
Gen P1
trasmissione
A/2 A/2
Gen P1
mutazione
2亮 亮
Equilibrio: A = A/2 + 2亮, B = A/2 + 亮
A = 4亮 B = 3亮
Con 亮=10-4
, E( aff) = 1/3333
In Veneto, aff=33.2 x 10-5 1/3000
31. Teorema fondamentale della selezione
naturale (Fisher 1930)
Il tasso di incremento della fitness in una popolazione in
qualunque momento 竪 pari alla varianza genetica della
sua fitness in quel momento
N di individui in due colture come stima della fitness
32. Test di selezione: Tajima
In assenza di ricombinazione, se un locus si 竪 evoluto in condizioni di
neutralit, due statistiche (numero di siti polimorfici; mismatch medio)
sono entrambi funzione di 4N亮.
Se S 竪 il numero di siti polimorfici, e K il mismatch medio
S/ a1 = K, e d = K (S/ a1)
La statistica di Tajima 竪 D = d / Var(d)
Il test di Tajima calcola la differenza, D, fra due stime di 4N亮 (basate
rispettivamente su numero di siti polimorfici e mismatch medio) e la
confronta con una distribuzione casuale.
In una popolazione allequilibrio fra deriva e mutazione
E() = a1 4N亮 E(k) = 4N亮
33. Test di selezione: Tajima
D>0
Eccesso di mismatch:
selezione stabilizzante
D<0
Eccesso di siti polimorfici:
selezione diversificante
34. Un esempio.
DNA di 5 individui
Position 12345 67890 12345 67890
Person Y 00000 00000 00000 00000
Person A 00100 00000 00100 00010
Person B 00000 00000 00100 00010
Person C 00000 01000 00000 00010
Person D 00000 01000 00100 00010
35. You vs A
Person Y 00000 00000 00000 00000
Person A 00100 00000 00100 00010
3 polymorphisms
You vs B
Person Y 00000 00000 00000 00000
Person B 00000 00000 00100 00010
2 polymorphisms
You vs C
Person Y 00000 00000 00000 00000
Person C 00000 01000 00000 00010
2 polymorphisms
And so on, for 10 comparisons
36. The average number of pairwise differences is
And the number of polymorphic sites is 4:
Position 12345 67890 12345 67890
Person Y 00000 00000 00000 00000
Person A 00100 00000 00100 00010
Person B 00000 00000 00100 00010
Person C 00000 01000 00000 00010
Person D 00000 01000 00100 00010
d = 2 4 = 2
Test di equilibrio
deriva - mutazione
39. Unimodal Multimodal
Peak age of expansion Many peaks
Tajimas D < 0 Tajima D >0
(= diverisfying selection) (= stabilizing selection)
Distributions of pairwise sequence differences,
or mismatch distributions
40. Link utili per fare esercizio
http://darwin.eeb.uconn.edu/simulations/simulations.html
http://cc.oulu.fi/~jaspi/popgen/popgen.htm
41. Ma perch辿, dopo tutta questa selezione,
non siamo diventati perfetti?
42. 1. Lambiente cambia
Stone agers in the fast lane
Red queen hypothesis (Leigh Van Valen,
John Maynard Smith)
"Well, in our country," said Alice, still
panting a little, "you'd generally get to
somewhere elseif you ran very fast for
a long time, as we've been doing.
"A slow sort of country!" said the Queen.
"Now, here, you see, it takes all the
running you can do, to keep in the same
place. If you want to get somewhere else,
you must run at least twice as fast as
that!"
44. 2. Selezione sessuale
In specie sessualmente dimorfiche le femmine
scelgono il partner in base a criteri che
possono promuovere o meno
ladattamento. Due ipotesi principali:
1. Good genes
2. Sexy sons
45. Malte Andersson (1982)
Nelluccello vedova Euplectes jacksoni, la scelta della
femmina dipende dalla lunghezza della coda del maschio
(sexy sons)
46. La colorazione di molti pesci e uccelli risente della presenza
di parassiti e quindi segnala alla femmina lo stato di salute
del maschio (good genes)
Bill Hamilton
49. Programmi online di simulazione: pi湛 popolazioni
http://www.cbs.umn.edu/populus/
50. Sintesi
La selezione naturale dipende dal diverso successo riproduttivo
(fitness) dei diversi genotipi
Il cambiamento delle frequenze alleliche sotto selezione dipende dalla
fitness dei diversi genotipi
La selezione naturale tende generalmente a ridurre la diversit entro
popolazioni; leterosi e la selezione dipendente dalla frequenza
possono mantenere un polimorfismo
La fitness media di una popolazione tende ad aumentare
indefinitamente
Il risultato finale non 竪 per嘆 un adattamento perfetto, perch辿
lambiente non 竪 costante e perch辿 meccanismi di selezione sessuale
possono agire in senso diverso
Il test di Tajima permette di confrontare con dati relativi a tratti di
genoma non soggetti a ricombinazioni le attese di un modello
neutrale, in cui agiscono solo mutazione e deriva