1. El genoma humano est叩 compuesto por aproximadamente 3200 millones de pares de bases de ADN organizados en 24 cromosomas que contienen entre 20,000 y 25,000 genes.
2. El ADN contiene la informaci坦n gen辿tica necesaria para la expresi坦n y regulaci坦n del proteoma humano a trav辿s de procesos como la transcripci坦n, traducci坦n y replicaci坦n del ADN.
3. Aproximadamente el 75% del genoma humano est叩 compuesto de ADN de copia 炭nica que contiene genes y regiones reguladoras, mientras que el 25
Fine Structure of Gene- Biotechnology, Microbiology PPT DownloadEducation Bhaskar
油
Fine Structure of Gene- Biotechnology, Microbiology PPT, PDF
Download the presentation
SYNOPSIS
Introduction
History of gene
Definition of gene
Gene structure
Prokaryote gene
Eukaryote gene
Significance of introns.
References
Translation initiation in eukaryotes is a highly regulated and rate-limiting process that involves the assembly of numerous transient complexes containing over a dozen eukaryotic initiation factors. This process culminates in the accommodation of a start codon at the appropriate ribosomal site. Structural biology has provided insights into the mammalian mitochondrial translation initiation complex and other key complexes and factors involved in the process, such as eIF3, the eIF2 ternary complex, and the DHX29 helicase. Dysregulation of translation initiation can contribute to diseases like cancer and metabolic disorders.
This document discusses important considerations for analog integrated circuit layout and the CMOS fabrication process. It covers topics like MOS transistor operation, analog signal characteristics, CMOS fabrication steps, layout techniques for minimizing noise and mismatches, and avoiding latch-up issues. The key goals of analog layout include matching devices, minimizing parasitic capacitance and resistance, isolating analog and digital sections, and using guard rings and decoupling capacitors.
Post-translational modifications (PTMs) are chemical changes that occur to proteins after translation. PTMs are essential for normal protein function. The document defines key PTMs like phosphorylation, glycosylation, and acetylation. It explains that after translation in the cytosol, many proteins are directed to the endoplasmic reticulum for modification and protein folding. PTMs increase proteome complexity compared to the genome by altering protein structures from the gene sequence. Common PTMs like phosphorylation and glycosylation are catalyzed by specific enzymes and influence protein interactions.
This document describes a new bisulfite-free method called TAPS (Tet-Assisted Pyridine-borane Sequencing) for whole-genome DNA methylation profiling with single-base resolution. TAPS uses TET enzymes to oxidize 5-methylcytosine (5mC) and then uses mild chemical reactions with pyridine borane to selectively convert 5mC to thymine while leaving unmodified cytosines intact. This avoids the DNA degradation and biases introduced by bisulfite treatment in whole-genome bisulfite sequencing. The summary is as follows:
1) TAPS provides high conversion rates of 5mC to thymine without affecting unmodified cytosines or damaging DNA.
This presentation provides an overview of RNA interference (RNAi) including its history, components, mechanism, advantages, and applications. It discusses how RNAi involves long double-stranded RNAs being cut by the enzyme Dicer into short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) that then guide the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) to degrade messenger RNAs with complementary base sequences, preventing gene expression. The presentation also compares siRNAs and microRNAs (miRNAs), noting similarities in their biogenesis and roles in post-transcriptional gene silencing, while distinguishing their origins, sizes, targets, and effects on mRNA. Recent applications of RNAi modulation of viral replication and gene expression are highlighted.
1. The document compares genetic and linguistic diversity in Europe and finds some correlations between the two.
2. Structural features of languages may provide a better basis for comparison than vocabulary. Principal component analysis of genetic and linguistic data show some similarities in clustering.
3. Recent population mixing can account for some inconsistencies between the genetic and linguistic patterns. Overall, geography, genetics, and language are interrelated but influenced by separate evolutionary processes over long time periods.
1. El genoma humano est叩 compuesto por aproximadamente 3200 millones de pares de bases de ADN organizados en 24 cromosomas que contienen entre 20,000 y 25,000 genes.
2. El ADN contiene la informaci坦n gen辿tica necesaria para la expresi坦n y regulaci坦n del proteoma humano a trav辿s de procesos como la transcripci坦n, traducci坦n y replicaci坦n del ADN.
3. Aproximadamente el 75% del genoma humano est叩 compuesto de ADN de copia 炭nica que contiene genes y regiones reguladoras, mientras que el 25
Fine Structure of Gene- Biotechnology, Microbiology PPT DownloadEducation Bhaskar
油
Fine Structure of Gene- Biotechnology, Microbiology PPT, PDF
Download the presentation
SYNOPSIS
Introduction
History of gene
Definition of gene
Gene structure
Prokaryote gene
Eukaryote gene
Significance of introns.
References
Translation initiation in eukaryotes is a highly regulated and rate-limiting process that involves the assembly of numerous transient complexes containing over a dozen eukaryotic initiation factors. This process culminates in the accommodation of a start codon at the appropriate ribosomal site. Structural biology has provided insights into the mammalian mitochondrial translation initiation complex and other key complexes and factors involved in the process, such as eIF3, the eIF2 ternary complex, and the DHX29 helicase. Dysregulation of translation initiation can contribute to diseases like cancer and metabolic disorders.
This document discusses important considerations for analog integrated circuit layout and the CMOS fabrication process. It covers topics like MOS transistor operation, analog signal characteristics, CMOS fabrication steps, layout techniques for minimizing noise and mismatches, and avoiding latch-up issues. The key goals of analog layout include matching devices, minimizing parasitic capacitance and resistance, isolating analog and digital sections, and using guard rings and decoupling capacitors.
Post-translational modifications (PTMs) are chemical changes that occur to proteins after translation. PTMs are essential for normal protein function. The document defines key PTMs like phosphorylation, glycosylation, and acetylation. It explains that after translation in the cytosol, many proteins are directed to the endoplasmic reticulum for modification and protein folding. PTMs increase proteome complexity compared to the genome by altering protein structures from the gene sequence. Common PTMs like phosphorylation and glycosylation are catalyzed by specific enzymes and influence protein interactions.
This document describes a new bisulfite-free method called TAPS (Tet-Assisted Pyridine-borane Sequencing) for whole-genome DNA methylation profiling with single-base resolution. TAPS uses TET enzymes to oxidize 5-methylcytosine (5mC) and then uses mild chemical reactions with pyridine borane to selectively convert 5mC to thymine while leaving unmodified cytosines intact. This avoids the DNA degradation and biases introduced by bisulfite treatment in whole-genome bisulfite sequencing. The summary is as follows:
1) TAPS provides high conversion rates of 5mC to thymine without affecting unmodified cytosines or damaging DNA.
This presentation provides an overview of RNA interference (RNAi) including its history, components, mechanism, advantages, and applications. It discusses how RNAi involves long double-stranded RNAs being cut by the enzyme Dicer into short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) that then guide the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) to degrade messenger RNAs with complementary base sequences, preventing gene expression. The presentation also compares siRNAs and microRNAs (miRNAs), noting similarities in their biogenesis and roles in post-transcriptional gene silencing, while distinguishing their origins, sizes, targets, and effects on mRNA. Recent applications of RNAi modulation of viral replication and gene expression are highlighted.
1. The document compares genetic and linguistic diversity in Europe and finds some correlations between the two.
2. Structural features of languages may provide a better basis for comparison than vocabulary. Principal component analysis of genetic and linguistic data show some similarities in clustering.
3. Recent population mixing can account for some inconsistencies between the genetic and linguistic patterns. Overall, geography, genetics, and language are interrelated but influenced by separate evolutionary processes over long time periods.
1. The document discusses three main questions regarding human evolutionary genetics: the debate between hybridization models vs. the Southern dispersal route out of Africa, the coevolution of cultural and biological diversity, and challenges to the persistence of racial paradigms given genomic data.
2. Regarding the first question, the author notes several problems with hybridization hypotheses and presents evidence supporting an earlier dispersal of modern humans out of Africa via a Southern route, avoiding contact with Neanderthals.
3. For the second question, the author reviews evidence that increases in brain size did not necessarily correlate with genes associated with cognitive functions, and that cultural and linguistic changes likely evolved in parallel with biological changes.
4.
Perch辿 alle Olimpiadi le gare di sprint le vincono sempre atleti caraibici, le maratone gli africani dell'est, che per嘆 nel nuoto non combinano niente? Non sar che ci sono differenze razziali? La risposta, ancora una volta, 竪 no.
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06 traduzione
1. Capitolo 6
Espressione genica:
la traduzione
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
http://www.guidobarbujani.it/progetti/genetica/Guido/index.php?
lng=it&p=4
http://www.guidobarbujani.it/index.php/1-genetica
2. Domande 6
Com竪 fatta una proteina?
Che rapporto c竪 fra la sequenza di nucleotidi nel DNA e quella
degli amminoacidi nella proteina?
Quali sono i ruoli dei vari RNA nella sintesi proteica?
Quali sequenze segnalano linizio e la fine della traduzione?
4. Figura 6.2
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010
Pearson Italia S.p.A
Gli amminoacidi
5. Figura 6.3
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
Formazione del legame peptidico
6. Nirenberg e Matthaei, 1961:
omopolimeri in sistema cell-free
RNA sintetici ottenuti grazie alla polinucleotide fosfatasi.
Polinucleotide aa osservati nel peptide
UUU solo Phe
CCC solo Pro
AAA solo Lys
GGG solo Gly
7. Khorana, 1962: miniRNA in
sistema cell-free
(copolimeri statistici)
Frequenze nellRNA ottenuto a partire da 他 U e 村 G e nei
polipeptidi:
Attese Osservate
P(UUU) = 他 x 他 x 他 = 27/64 Phe = 1.00
P(UUG) = 他 x 他 x 村 = 9/64 Leu = 0.32
P(UGU) = 他 x 村 x 他 = 9/64 Cys = 0.31
P(GUU) = 村 x 他 x 他 = 9/64 Val = 0.37
P(UGG) = 他 x 村 x 村 = 3/64 Trp = 0.12
P(GUG) = 村 x 他 x 村 = 3/64 Gly = 0.14
P(GGU) = 村 x 村 x 他 = 3/64
P(GGG) = 村 x 村 x 村 = 1/64
8. Khorana: miniRNA in sistema cell-free
Attese Osservate
P(UUU) = 他 x 他 x 他 = 27/64 Phe = 1.00
P(UUG) = 他 x 他 x 村 = 9/64 Leu = 0.32
P(UGU) = 他 x 村 x 他 = 9/64 Cys = 0.31
P(GUU) = 村 x 他 x 他 = 9/64 Val = 0.37
P(UGG) = 他 x 村 x 村 = 3/64 Trp = 0.12
P(GUG) = 村 x 他 x 村 = 3/64 Gly = 0.14
P(GGU) = 村 x 村 x 他 = 3/64
P(GGG) = 村 x 村 x 村 = 1/64
10. Figura 6.7
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
Il codice genetico
11. Il codice genetico:
1. a triplette;
2. continuo (nessun nucleotide viene saltato);
3. Non ha sovrapposizioni (eccezioni: alcuni procarioti);
4. universale (eccezioni: mitocondri, Tetrahymena);
5. degenerato (tranne che per met e trp);
6. Ha segnali di inizio (AUG) e fine (UAA, UAG, UGA).
Qual 竪 il vantaggio di un codice degenerato?
12. The genetic code is shown in the circular form, with known alternative meanings indicated outside the circle.
Differences with the standard genetic code are shown as follows: red for mitochondrial, blue for ciliate
nuclear code, and orange for the ambiguous yeast nuclear code
Qualche eccezione:
13. Alternate start codons are still translated as Met when they are at the start
of a protein (even if the codon encodes a different amino acid otherwise).
This is because a separate transfer RNA (tRNA) is used for initiation
In prokaryotes the use of GUG and UUG as initiators in addition to AUG is
known to be quite widespread; for example, an analysis of the E. coli
genome revealed that 14% of the genes use GUG for translation initiation,
and 3% utilize UUG.
17. Figura 6.9
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
Basi modificate:
率 = pseudouridina
D = diidrouridina
Gme = metilguanosina
Gme2 = dimetilguanosina
I = inosina
Ime = metilinosina
T = ribotimidina
18. Figura 6.10
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
tRNA carico e
scarico.
Lamminoacido
viene legato al tRNA
dallamminoacil
tRNA sintetasi
20. Schema della traduzione: procarioti
1. Inizio:
Legame fra fattori dinizio (enzimi) e subunit 30S del ribosoma
Legame fra la seq. di Shine-Dalgarno e lrRNA 30S (complesso dinizio 30S)
Legame fra AUG e fMet-tRNA
Legame con la subunit 50S del ribosoma (complesso dinizio 70S)
2. Allungamento:
Legame fra amminoacil-tRNA e ribosoma
Formazione del legame peptidico
Scorrimento (traslocazione) del ribosoma lungo lmRNA
3. Terminazione:
Incontro col codone di stop
Legame fra fattore di rilascio e codone di stop
Rilascio del polipeptide, separazione delle subunit ribosomali
22. Figura 6.15
Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A
Traduzione: inizio
23. Nei procarioti, la fMet porta un gruppo formilico (CHO)
legato al gruppo amminico
Nei tRNA carichi, lamminoacido 竪 legato al gruppo carbossilico, e
quindi per un legame peptidico dispone solo del gruppo amminico
24. Perci嘆, la catena peptidica si pu嘆 estendere
solo allestremit carbossi-terminale
NH2
28. Negli Eucarioti 竪 un po lo stesso, per嘆 un po no
1. LAUG dellmRNA non viene riconosciuto da una fMet, ma da una Met
2. Non c竪 la sequenza di Shine-Dalgarno
3. Intervengono invece fattori di inizio eucarioti (eIF), cio竪 proteine
4. Una di loro, Cap binding protein (CBP) si lega al cap e localizza lAUG iniziale
5. Anche la coda di poliA del messaggero svolge un ruolo, stimolando la traduzione
35. Riassunto 06
Chiamiamo codice genetico linsieme delle triplette di nucleotidi
(codoni), ciascuna delle quali designa un amminoacido nella catena
polipeptidica
Il codice genetico 竪 (1) universale, (2) continuo e (3) degenerato, cio竪
per un amminoacido possono esistere pi湛 triplette
Il messaggero viene tradotto in un peptide nei ribosomi
Il tRNA presenta al ribosoma gli amminoacidi
La sequenza polipeptidica viene determinata dal legame fra il codone e
lanticodone complementare del tRNA
Il codone di inizio traduzione 竪 AUG, che codifica per Met; questa
metionina pu嘆 restare nel peptide, o essere eliminata
Ci sono differenze fra Procarioti e Eucarioti nei meccanismi di inizio
della traduzione
La catena polipeptidica si estende sempre in direzione C-terminale
La traduzione termina quando sullmRNA si incontra un codone di stop
(UAG, UAA o UGA)