Class 8 english lesson 4 our ethnic friend-2Abdull叩h M叩mun
油
The document discusses the lifestyles, culture, and traditions of ethnic groups living in Bangladesh, noting that they typically build houses on bamboo or wooden platforms, eat foods like rice, vegetables, fish and poultry, use bamboo, wooden and earthen kitchen utensils, engage in activities like fishing, hunting and wrestling for entertainment, and play traditional musical instruments such as bugles and drums. It also provides pictures and descriptions of ethnic peoples' housing, food, clothing, musical instruments, and favorite pastimes.
This document discusses several genetic patterns beyond Mendel's laws of inheritance, including incomplete dominance, codominance, multiple alleles, lethal alleles, sex-linked traits, cytoplasmic inheritance, genomic imprinting, anticipation, and environmental influences on traits. It provides examples for each pattern, such as pink flowers from incomplete dominance of red and white alleles or blood types from multiple alleles and codominance.
This document discusses gene interaction and its relationship to diseases. It begins by outlining gene interaction, including its mechanism, types (gene-gene and gene-environment), and forms of allelic and non-allelic interaction. A key form of gene interaction is epistasis, where one gene masks the effects of other genes. Several diseases are influenced by epistatic gene interactions, including Alzheimer's disease, cystic fibrosis, diabetes, and some cancers. For example, the risk of Alzheimer's is affected by interactions between the apolipoprotein e4 gene and other genes. Diabetes risk is influenced by interactions between loci on different chromosomes.
Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who experimented with pea plants in the 1850s and 1860s. Through his experiments, he discovered the laws of inheritance known as Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment. Mendel showed that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units (now known as genes) that segregate and assort independently. His work laid the foundation for modern genetics although it was not widely recognized until the early 1900s.
This document discusses chromosomal basis of inheritance. It explains that chromosomes occur in pairs in somatic cells and during gamete formation, homologous chromosomes separate so each gamete contains one chromosome from the pair. The chromosome theory proposed by Sutton and Boveri stated that gametes contain chromosomes that carry hereditary characters and union of gametes restores the diploid number. The rest of the document discusses chromosomes in more detail including their structure, types, sex chromosomes, and mechanisms of sex determination in different organisms.
The document discusses different patterns of inheritance for genetic conditions:
- Autosomal dominant requires only one copy of the mutated gene to cause the condition, affecting both sexes equally. Examples given are Progeria and Huntington's disease.
- Autosomal recessive requires two copies of the mutated gene to cause the condition, can skip generations, and affects both sexes equally. Examples given are albinism and Tay-Sachs disease.
- X-linked recessive mainly affects males and can skip generations as fathers pass the gene to daughters but not sons. Examples given are hemophilia and Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
- X-linked dominant affects females more than males, with fathers passing the gene to
Genomic imprinting: recognition and marking of imprinted lociB叩rbara P辿rez
油
This document summarizes recent developments in understanding how genomic imprinting recognizes and marks imprinted loci for differential DNA methylation in germ cells. It discusses how histone modifications and active transcription may help target DNA methyltransferases to these regions. The DNA methyltransferases DNMT3A and DNMT3L are critical for establishing imprints, though the precise sequence features that distinguish imprinted loci remain unclear.
This document discusses genetic diseases and abnormal fetal development. It begins with definitions of genetic terms like genetic code, chromosomes, genes, and cell division. It then discusses abnormal fetal development including malformations, deformations, and disruptions caused by chromosomal abnormalities, genetic defects, and environmental factors. The document ends by covering perinatal pathology including birth defects and metabolic disorders.
The document summarizes the molecular basis of inheritance through DNA and protein synthesis. It describes the structure of DNA as a double helix made of nucleotides. DNA replication follows the semi-conservative model where each parental strand serves as a template for a new complementary strand. Genes specify proteins via transcription of DNA into mRNA and translation of mRNA into polypeptides on ribosomes. Genetic engineering techniques allow manipulation of genes through recombinant DNA and gene cloning.
1. The document explains genetic crosses and Mendelian inheritance through examples of monohybrid and dihybrid crosses in pea plants.
2. It discusses key genetics concepts like genotype, phenotype, probability, Punnett squares, and inheritance patterns like complete dominance, incomplete dominance, and codominance.
3. As an example, a monohybrid cross between a homozygous dominant purple pea plant and a homozygous recessive white pea plant would result in all heterozygous purple offspring.
The document discusses input/output (I/O) mapping schemes and the Intel 8255 Programmable Peripheral Interface (PPI) chip. It describes two I/O mapping schemes - memory mapped I/O and I/O mapped I/O. It then discusses the Intel 8255 PPI chip, its features, operating modes (I/O and BSR modes), and how to program it. Examples are provided of writing control words to configure the ports and a program to read from two ports and write the result to the third port.
- Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants to study inheritance of traits from parents to offspring. He found that traits were inherited as distinct units (now known as genes) that get passed down and combined in predictable ways.
- Mendel established that inherited traits are controlled by factors (genes) that are transmitted from parents to offspring. Each trait is controlled by a pair of genes (alleles), and one allele can be dominant over the other.
- Mendel's laws of inheritance include the law of segregation, the law of independent assortment, and the law of dominance. These laws describe the basic principles of genetic inheritance and explained the patterns he observed in his pea plant experiments.
Jacob's syndrome is a rare chromosomal disorder that affects males. It is caused by the presence of an extra Y chromosome, so those affected have one X and two Y chromosomes rather than the typical one X and one Y. Those with Jacob's syndrome may experience learning problems, delayed emotional maturity, speech problems, and tall, thin physique with acne and reading difficulties. The condition occurs when a male inherits two Y chromosomes instead of the usual one from his father, making him an XYY male, rather than the more common XY male. The exact cause of this extra Y chromosome is unknown.
Polygenic inheritance is when a single trait is controlled by multiple genes. Most human traits related to size, shape, and color are polygenic. A cross between parents that are heterozygous for three genes (AaBbCc x AaBbCc) would produce offspring with different combinations of dominant and recessive alleles, leading to a range of phenotypes. The number of dominant alleles an individual possesses determines how strongly or darkly a polygenic trait is expressed.
A pedigree is a chart of a family's genetic history over generations used by genetic counselors. It displays individuals as symbols connected to show familial relationships. Interpreting a pedigree identifies if a condition is autosomal or X-linked and dominant or recessive by examining patterns of affected individuals and their relatedness. Pedigrees are a tool for understanding inheritance of genetic disorders.
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 9 of Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections regarding patterns of inheritance. It discusses Mendel's laws of inheritance, the chromosomal basis of inheritance, variations on Mendel's laws including independent assortment and multiple alleles. It also covers sex-linked inheritance in humans, inheritance of genetic disorders, genetic testing technologies, and factors influencing complex traits such as polygenic inheritance and gene-environment interactions. Diagrams and examples involving inheritance patterns in humans and model organisms are provided.
Class 8 english lesson 4 our ethnic friend-2Abdull叩h M叩mun
油
The document discusses the lifestyles, culture, and traditions of ethnic groups living in Bangladesh, noting that they typically build houses on bamboo or wooden platforms, eat foods like rice, vegetables, fish and poultry, use bamboo, wooden and earthen kitchen utensils, engage in activities like fishing, hunting and wrestling for entertainment, and play traditional musical instruments such as bugles and drums. It also provides pictures and descriptions of ethnic peoples' housing, food, clothing, musical instruments, and favorite pastimes.
This document discusses several genetic patterns beyond Mendel's laws of inheritance, including incomplete dominance, codominance, multiple alleles, lethal alleles, sex-linked traits, cytoplasmic inheritance, genomic imprinting, anticipation, and environmental influences on traits. It provides examples for each pattern, such as pink flowers from incomplete dominance of red and white alleles or blood types from multiple alleles and codominance.
This document discusses gene interaction and its relationship to diseases. It begins by outlining gene interaction, including its mechanism, types (gene-gene and gene-environment), and forms of allelic and non-allelic interaction. A key form of gene interaction is epistasis, where one gene masks the effects of other genes. Several diseases are influenced by epistatic gene interactions, including Alzheimer's disease, cystic fibrosis, diabetes, and some cancers. For example, the risk of Alzheimer's is affected by interactions between the apolipoprotein e4 gene and other genes. Diabetes risk is influenced by interactions between loci on different chromosomes.
Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who experimented with pea plants in the 1850s and 1860s. Through his experiments, he discovered the laws of inheritance known as Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment. Mendel showed that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units (now known as genes) that segregate and assort independently. His work laid the foundation for modern genetics although it was not widely recognized until the early 1900s.
This document discusses chromosomal basis of inheritance. It explains that chromosomes occur in pairs in somatic cells and during gamete formation, homologous chromosomes separate so each gamete contains one chromosome from the pair. The chromosome theory proposed by Sutton and Boveri stated that gametes contain chromosomes that carry hereditary characters and union of gametes restores the diploid number. The rest of the document discusses chromosomes in more detail including their structure, types, sex chromosomes, and mechanisms of sex determination in different organisms.
The document discusses different patterns of inheritance for genetic conditions:
- Autosomal dominant requires only one copy of the mutated gene to cause the condition, affecting both sexes equally. Examples given are Progeria and Huntington's disease.
- Autosomal recessive requires two copies of the mutated gene to cause the condition, can skip generations, and affects both sexes equally. Examples given are albinism and Tay-Sachs disease.
- X-linked recessive mainly affects males and can skip generations as fathers pass the gene to daughters but not sons. Examples given are hemophilia and Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
- X-linked dominant affects females more than males, with fathers passing the gene to
Genomic imprinting: recognition and marking of imprinted lociB叩rbara P辿rez
油
This document summarizes recent developments in understanding how genomic imprinting recognizes and marks imprinted loci for differential DNA methylation in germ cells. It discusses how histone modifications and active transcription may help target DNA methyltransferases to these regions. The DNA methyltransferases DNMT3A and DNMT3L are critical for establishing imprints, though the precise sequence features that distinguish imprinted loci remain unclear.
This document discusses genetic diseases and abnormal fetal development. It begins with definitions of genetic terms like genetic code, chromosomes, genes, and cell division. It then discusses abnormal fetal development including malformations, deformations, and disruptions caused by chromosomal abnormalities, genetic defects, and environmental factors. The document ends by covering perinatal pathology including birth defects and metabolic disorders.
The document summarizes the molecular basis of inheritance through DNA and protein synthesis. It describes the structure of DNA as a double helix made of nucleotides. DNA replication follows the semi-conservative model where each parental strand serves as a template for a new complementary strand. Genes specify proteins via transcription of DNA into mRNA and translation of mRNA into polypeptides on ribosomes. Genetic engineering techniques allow manipulation of genes through recombinant DNA and gene cloning.
1. The document explains genetic crosses and Mendelian inheritance through examples of monohybrid and dihybrid crosses in pea plants.
2. It discusses key genetics concepts like genotype, phenotype, probability, Punnett squares, and inheritance patterns like complete dominance, incomplete dominance, and codominance.
3. As an example, a monohybrid cross between a homozygous dominant purple pea plant and a homozygous recessive white pea plant would result in all heterozygous purple offspring.
The document discusses input/output (I/O) mapping schemes and the Intel 8255 Programmable Peripheral Interface (PPI) chip. It describes two I/O mapping schemes - memory mapped I/O and I/O mapped I/O. It then discusses the Intel 8255 PPI chip, its features, operating modes (I/O and BSR modes), and how to program it. Examples are provided of writing control words to configure the ports and a program to read from two ports and write the result to the third port.
- Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants to study inheritance of traits from parents to offspring. He found that traits were inherited as distinct units (now known as genes) that get passed down and combined in predictable ways.
- Mendel established that inherited traits are controlled by factors (genes) that are transmitted from parents to offspring. Each trait is controlled by a pair of genes (alleles), and one allele can be dominant over the other.
- Mendel's laws of inheritance include the law of segregation, the law of independent assortment, and the law of dominance. These laws describe the basic principles of genetic inheritance and explained the patterns he observed in his pea plant experiments.
Jacob's syndrome is a rare chromosomal disorder that affects males. It is caused by the presence of an extra Y chromosome, so those affected have one X and two Y chromosomes rather than the typical one X and one Y. Those with Jacob's syndrome may experience learning problems, delayed emotional maturity, speech problems, and tall, thin physique with acne and reading difficulties. The condition occurs when a male inherits two Y chromosomes instead of the usual one from his father, making him an XYY male, rather than the more common XY male. The exact cause of this extra Y chromosome is unknown.
Polygenic inheritance is when a single trait is controlled by multiple genes. Most human traits related to size, shape, and color are polygenic. A cross between parents that are heterozygous for three genes (AaBbCc x AaBbCc) would produce offspring with different combinations of dominant and recessive alleles, leading to a range of phenotypes. The number of dominant alleles an individual possesses determines how strongly or darkly a polygenic trait is expressed.
A pedigree is a chart of a family's genetic history over generations used by genetic counselors. It displays individuals as symbols connected to show familial relationships. Interpreting a pedigree identifies if a condition is autosomal or X-linked and dominant or recessive by examining patterns of affected individuals and their relatedness. Pedigrees are a tool for understanding inheritance of genetic disorders.
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 9 of Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections regarding patterns of inheritance. It discusses Mendel's laws of inheritance, the chromosomal basis of inheritance, variations on Mendel's laws including independent assortment and multiple alleles. It also covers sex-linked inheritance in humans, inheritance of genetic disorders, genetic testing technologies, and factors influencing complex traits such as polygenic inheritance and gene-environment interactions. Diagrams and examples involving inheritance patterns in humans and model organisms are provided.
Andrea Baucon, corso di paleontologia - lezione 11 - evoluzione 2 (speciazione)Andrea Baucon
油
Impara i concetti, gli strumenti e le tecniche per esplorare il registro fossile! In questa presentazione apprenderai come fa una nuova specie ad evolversi. La presentazione fa parte del corso di Paleontologia tenuto da Andrea Baucon presso l'Universit di Trieste.
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Learn the concepts, tools and techniques to explore the fossil record! In this presentation you will learn how does a new species evolve. The presentation is part of the palaeontology course taught by Andrea Baucon at the University of Trieste, Italy.
1. The document compares genetic and linguistic diversity in Europe and finds some correlations between the two.
2. Structural features of languages may provide a better basis for comparison than vocabulary. Principal component analysis of genetic and linguistic data show some similarities in clustering.
3. Recent population mixing can account for some inconsistencies between the genetic and linguistic patterns. Overall, geography, genetics, and language are interrelated but influenced by separate evolutionary processes over long time periods.
1. The document discusses three main questions regarding human evolutionary genetics: the debate between hybridization models vs. the Southern dispersal route out of Africa, the coevolution of cultural and biological diversity, and challenges to the persistence of racial paradigms given genomic data.
2. Regarding the first question, the author notes several problems with hybridization hypotheses and presents evidence supporting an earlier dispersal of modern humans out of Africa via a Southern route, avoiding contact with Neanderthals.
3. For the second question, the author reviews evidence that increases in brain size did not necessarily correlate with genes associated with cognitive functions, and that cultural and linguistic changes likely evolved in parallel with biological changes.
4.
Perch辿 alle Olimpiadi le gare di sprint le vincono sempre atleti caraibici, le maratone gli africani dell'est, che per嘆 nel nuoto non combinano niente? Non sar che ci sono differenze razziali? La risposta, ancora una volta, 竪 no.
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21 genetica di popolazioni
1. Capitolo 21 Genetica di popolazioni Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A http://web.unife.it/progetti/genetica/Guido/index.php?lng=it&p=4
2. Domande 21 In che modo possiamo caratterizzare geneticamente, anzich辿 individui, popolazioni? Come si quantifica la diversit genetica in una popolazione? In che condizioni le caratteristiche genetiche delle popolazioni sono stabili, e in che casi no? Quali sono i fattori che portano le caratteristiche genetiche delle popolazioni a cambiare, e le popolazioni ad evolvere? Qual 竪 il ruolo del caso e quale quello della necessit nellevoluzione?
3. Gli individui nascono e muoiono, le popolazioni possono espandersi, contrarsi ed estinguersi: genetica della conservazione Individui, popolazioni Gli individui hanno i loro alleli e genotipi, le popolazioni le loro frequenze alleliche e genotipiche Ogni individuo 竪 come 竪, le frequenze alleliche cambiano nel tempo e questa 竪 levoluzione: genetica evoluzionistica Gli individui si ammalano e guariscono, le popolazioni sono caratterizzate da frequenze di alleli patologici: epidemiologia genetica
4. Un bel problema Levoluzione, guidata dalla selezione naturale, modifica i caratteri in maniera graduale ed ereditaria; la variazione biologica 竪 continua La trasmissione dei caratteri dipende da fattori discreti (i geni) che, ereditati dai genitori, non si mescolano nella cellula; la variazione biologica 竪 discontinua Come 竪 possibile che fattori discreti determinino una variabilit continua?
5. Figura 21.1 Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A La sintesi moderna: Fisher, Wright, Dobzhansky, Haldane
6. Prima di tutto: non c 竪 genetica senza variabilit E la variabilit 竪 prodotta dal processo di mutazione
7. La genetica di popolazioni studia i polimorfismi Polimorfismi morfologici Polimorfismi elettroforesici Polimorfismi di restrizione (RFLP) Polimorfismi di lunghezza Polimorfismi di sequenza Polimorfismi di numero di copie Polimorfismi di comportamento
8. Quand 竪 che una popolazione pu嘆 dirsi variabile? A B N alleli = 5 N alleli = 2 H O = 0.4 H O = 0.6 Quando il genotipo individuale 竪 difficile da prevedere
10. Frequenze alleliche F S S FS S FS F FS FS S fenotipo osservato FF SS SS FS SS FS FF FS FS SS genotipo dedotto Freq. genotipiche: FF=0,2 FS=0,4 SS=0,4 Freq. alleliche: f(F)=p, f(S)=q p+q=1 p = (NF + 遜 NH) / NT = (2NF + NH)/2NT p = (2 + 2)/10 = 0,4 p= (4 + 4)/20 = 0,4 q = (4 + 2)/10 = 0,6 q = (8 + 4)/20 = 0,6 p+q = 0,4 + 0,6 = 1
11. Figura 21.2 Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A BB Bb bb La frequenza allelica 竪 il rapporto fra il numero di copie di alleli di un certo allele e il numero totale di alleli di quel gene nella popolazione Pigmentazione nella falena tigre, Panaxia dominula
12. Tipi di polimorfismo studiati nel DNA Single Nucleotide Polymorphism: SNP Inserzione/delezione Variazione del numero di copie: STR, VNTR, CNV
13. Figura 21.8 Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A Polimorfismi di restrizione
17. E la variabilit delle frequenze alleliche aiuta a definire le origini degli individui
18. Che relazione lega frequenze alleliche e genotipiche? Generazione 0: N(AA) = d N(Aa) = h N(aa) = r Totale = T F(A) = (NF + 遜 NH) / NT = (d + 遜 h) / T = p Assunzione: lunione fra i genotipi 竪 casuale. Panmissia Conseguenza: lunione fra i gameti 竪 casuale
19. Perci嘆 alla generazione 1 avremo: F(AA) = p 2 F(Aa) = 2pq F(aa) = q 2 Totale =1 1. Se lunione dei gameti 竪 casuale, le frequenze genotipiche dipendono dalle frequenze alleliche secondo la relazione Fr. alleliche: p, q Fr. Genotipiche: p 2 , 2pq, q 2 Frequenze alleliche alla generazione 1: F(A) = (NF + 遜 NH) / NT = (p + 遜 2 pq) / 1 = p Se lunione dei gameti 竪 casuale, le frequenze alleliche non cambiano attraverso le generazioni: Equilibrio di Hardy-Weinberg
20. Accoppiamento casuale o random mating MATING MAT. FREQ. PROGENIE 油 油 AA Aa aa AA x AA ( p 2)( p 2) p 4 p 4 油 油 AA x Aa ( p 2)( 2pq ) 2p 3 q p 3 q p 3 q 油 AA x aa ( p 2)( q 2) p 2 q 2 油 p 2 q 2 油 Aa x AA (2pq)(p 2 ) 2p 3 q p 3 q p 3 q 油 Aa x Aa (2pq)(2pq) 4p 2 q 2 p 2 q 2 2p 2 q 2 p 2 q 2 Aa x aa (2pq)(q 2 ) 2pq 3 油 pq 3 pq 3 aa x AA ( q 2)( p 2) p 2 q 2 油 p 2 q 2 油 aa x Aa ( q 2)( 2pq) 2pq 3 油 pq 3 pq 3 aa x aa ( q 2)( q 2) q 4 油 油 q 4
21. E alla fine nella progenie f(AA) = p 4 + 2p3q + p 2 q 2 = p 2 (p 2 + 2pq +q 2 ) = p 2 f(Aa) = 2p3q + 4p 2 q 2 + 2pq 3 = 2pq (p 2 + 2pq +q 2 ) = 2pq f(aa) = p 2 q 2 + 2pq 3 + q 4 = q 2 (p 2 + 2pq +q 2 ) = q 2 油 Cio 竪 esattamente le frequenze che si ottengono immaginando di accoppiare a caso i gameti del pool genico parentale
22. Dopo la prima generazione di panmissia p, q p 2 , 2pq, q 2 Quindi, in una popolazione panmittica: Le frequenze genotipiche dipendono esclusivamente dalle frequenze alleliche della generazione precedente Le frequenze alleliche non cambiano attraverso le generazioni Quindi, se c 竪 equilibrio non c 竪 evoluzione, e viceversa
23. Lequilibrio di Hardy-Weinberg Dopo una generazione di accoppiamento casuale: Genotipo AA Aa aa Frequenza p 2 2pq q 2 Figura 21.3 Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A Figura 21.3
24. Cosa vuol dire equilibrio Se in una popolazione ho 80 alleli A e 120 a Allora p = 80/200 = 0,4, q = 0,6 0,16, 0,48, 0,36 Possibili distribuzioni dei genotipi: AA Aa aa p 40 0 60 0,4 35 10 55 0,4 20 40 40 0,4 16 48 36 0,4 10 60 30 0,4 0 80 20 0,4
25. Condizioni per lequilibrio di Hardy-Weinberg Organismo diploide, riproduzione sessuata Generazioni non sovrapposte Unione casuale Popolazione grande Mutazione trascurabile Migrazione trascurabile Mortalit indipendente dal genotipo Fertilit indipendente dal genotipo
26. Se non si incontrano queste condizioni: Unione casuale Inbreeding Popolazione grande Deriva genetica Mutazione trascurabile Mutazione Migrazione trascurabile Migrazione Mortalit indipendente dal genotipo Selezione Fertilit indipendente dal genotipo Selezione
27. Figura 21.5 Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A E se un allele 竪 recessivo? Albini: 2 Non albini: 48 aa Aa + AA 4 alleli a, 0 alleli A Tanti alleli A, pochi a, ma quanti? Ma, se c竪 equilibrio di Hardy-Weinberg, Fr(aa)=q 2 Perci嘆, qui 0.04 = q 2 , q = 0.2, p = 0.8
28. Figura 21.6 Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A Variabilit geografica: frequenza di alleli per la LAP (leucina amminopeptidasi) nel mitilo
32. Figura 21.7 Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A Variazione temporale delle frequenze dellallele Est4F in popolazioni di arvicola Microtus ochrogaster del Kansas.
33. Figura 21.9 Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A Esperimento di Buri (1956) 109 popolazioni 8 maschi , 8 femmine Inizialmente, tutti eterozigoti bw+ bw
34. Condizioni dellesperimento di Buri Organismo diploide, riproduzione sessuata Generazioni non sovrapposte Unione casuale Popolazione grande Mutazione trascurabile Migrazione trascurabile Mortalit indipendente dal genotipo Fertilit indipendente dal genotipo
35. Simulazione di deriva genetica in popolazioni diploidi di 10000 e 4 individui La deriva riduce la variabilit entro popolazioni e aumenta quella fra popolazioni
37. Variabilit genetica nel ghepardo Acinonyx Jubatus Jubatus (S. Africa) 2,500 (Namibia) 1,500 (Botswana) 1,500 (Kenya/Tanzania) Acinonyx Jubatus Rainey (E. Africa) less than 1,000 Acinonyx Jubatus Hecki (N. Africa) less than 1,000 Acinonyx Jubatus Venaticus (Asia) virtually extinct Acinonyx Jubatus Raddei (Iran/Turkestan) approx. 200
38. Livelli di eterozigosi per marcatori VNTR Menotti-Raymond & OBrien 1993 Bottleneck datato al Pleistocene N H media A. jubatus jubatus 7 0.280 A. jubatus raineyi 9 0.224 Felis catus 17 0.460 Panthera Leo (Serengeti) 76 0.481 Panthera Leo (Ngorongoro) 6 0.435
39. Flusso genico Migrazione di individui (dalla popolazione A alla popolazione B) Colonizzazione di habitat precedentemente non occupati Dispersione dei propaguli
41. Il flusso genico introduce nuovi alleli nelle sottopopolazioni e riduce le differenze fra sottopopolazioni Flusso genico deriva Flusso genico e deriva hanno effetti opposti
42. Figura 21.14 Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A Mimetismo in lucertola ( Sceloporus )
43. Figura 21.16 Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A Un caso tipico: Biston betularia
44. Frequenza della forma melanica (DD e Dd) in Nord America (Grant & Wiseman 2002 ) Un caso tipico: Biston betularia
45. Per levoluzione darwiniana servono quattro cose Esiste una variabilit Questa variabilit 竪, almeno in parte, ereditaria Nel contesto ambientale in cui si trovano, individui con caratteristiche ereditarie diverse hanno fertilit o mortalit diverse Le caratteristiche degli individui che lasciano pi湛 discendenti si diffondono nella popolazione: adattamento
51. Fitness Misura la speranza di progenie. Ha due componenti, legate a differenze in fertilit e mortalit Genotipo AA Aa aa Vita riproduttiva media 2.0 1.8 1.4 Fitness di sopravvivenza 2.0/2.0 =1.0 1.8/2.0 =0.9 1.4/2.0 =0.7 Genotipo AA Aa aa N medio discendenti 2.4 2.4 3.0 Fitness riproduttiva 2.4/3.0 =0.8 2.4/3.0=0.8 3.0/3.0=1.0
52. Fitness Complessivamente: Coefficiente di selezione: s = 1 Genotipo AA Aa aa Fitness riprod. 0.8 0.8 1.0 Fitness sopravv. 1.0 0.9 0.7 Prodotto 0.8 0.72 0.7 Fitness totale 0.8/0.8=1.0 0.72/0.8=0.9 0.7/0.88
54. La selezione pu嘆 avvenire in forme diverse Contro lallele dominante AA < 1, Aa < 1 Perdita rapida dellallele Contro lallele recessivo aa < 1 Calo di frequenza dellallele Contro un allele codominante AA < Aa < aa Perdita dellallele Figura 21.17
57. Figura 21.19 Peter J Russell, Genetica 息 2010 Pearson Italia S.p.A Vantaggio delleterozigote: Frequenze dellallele Hb-S
58. Ma perch辿, dopo tutta questa selezione, non siamo diventati perfetti?
59. 1. Lambiente cambia Stone agers in the fast lane Red queen hypothesis (John Maynard Smith)
60. 2. Selezione sessuale In specie sessualmente dimorfiche le femmine scelgono il partner in base a criteri che possono promuovere o meno ladattamento. Due ipotesi principali: Good genes Sexy sons
61. Sintesi 21 Una popolazione 竪 caratterizzata dalle frequenze dei diversi genotipi e dei diversi alleli al suo interno Una popolazione si dice panmittica o in equilibrio quando le sue frequenze genotipiche possono essere predette sulla base delle frequenze alleliche, e le frequenze alleliche non cambiano attraverso le generazioni I fattori che provocano scostamento dallequilibrio comprendono unione non casuale dei gameti, mutazione, selezione, migrazione e gli effetti del caso Popolazioni in equilibrio non si evolvono. I fattori che provocano scostamento dallequilibrio sono i fattori dellevoluzione La deriva genetica riduce la variabilit interna alle popolazioni e aumenta la variabilit fra popolazioni; il flusso genico fa il contrario La selezione tipicamente riduce le frequenze degli alleli associati a fitness ridotta, ma pu嘆 determinare equilibrio se avviene nella forma del vantaggio delleterozigote La selezione sessuale pu嘆 interferire con la selezione naturale, a volte favorendo il mantenimento di caratteri svantaggiosi