The document provides a historical overview of key discoveries related to DNA as the genetic material:
1) In the early 1900s, chromosomes were shown to carry hereditary information. By the 1940s-1950s, experiments by Avery, Griffith, Hershey and Chase provided evidence that DNA - not protein - was the genetic material.
2) Watson and Crick proposed the double helix structure of DNA in 1953 based on Chargaff's rules and Franklin's X-ray crystallography photos. Their model explained how DNA replicates and hereditary information is passed from parents to offspring.
3) Subsequent work in the 1960s by Nirenberg, Matthaei and others cracked the
Population Genetics 2015 03-20 (AGB 32012)Suvanthinis
Ìý
The document discusses Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, which states that allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant from one generation to the next if the population is large, randomly mating, and not experiencing mutation, immigration, emigration or natural selection. It defines key population genetics terms like population, gene pool, allele frequency. It outlines the five conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and provides an example calculation of genotype frequencies given allele frequencies in a population of cats. Factors that can disrupt Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium include small population size, non-random mating, mutation, migration, and natural selection.
Bio 106
Lecture 11 Genes in Populations
A. Population Genetics
B. Gene Frequencies and Equilibrium
1. Gene Frequencies
2. Gene Pool
3. Model System for Population Stability (Hardy – Weinberg Law)
2
cces2015
C. Changes in Gene Frequencies
1. Mutation
2. Selection
2.1 Relative Fitness
2.2 Selections and Variability
2.3 Selection and Mating
3. Systems
4. Migration
5. Genetic Drift
3
cces2015
D. Race and Species Formation
1. The Concept of Races
2. The Concept of Species
2.1 Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
2.2 Rapid Speciation
This document provides an overview of genetics and inheritance concepts taught in Campbell & Reece's chapters 14 and 15. It summarizes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that established the basic principles of heredity, including dominant and recessive traits, segregation of alleles, and his laws of inheritance. It also explains genetic crosses, including monohybrid and dihybrid crosses, and genetic terms like genotype and phenotype. Sex-linked inheritance and determining sex of offspring is described.
A population is a group of the same species living in a geographical area at a given time. Variation exists between members of a population in structural, biochemical, physiological, developmental, and behavioral traits. This variation is caused by genetic and environmental factors and is maintained in a population at equilibrium by a balance of evolutionary forces. Over time, agents of change like natural selection, genetic drift, migration, and artificial selection can act on populations to change allele frequencies and potentially lead to the formation of new species.
Chromatin, which contains DNA and proteins, is found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Histone proteins help package DNA into chromatin and condense it further into chromosomes during cell division. DNA is a double-stranded polymer composed of nucleotides containing a sugar, phosphate, and one of four nitrogenous bases. It forms the twisted ladder-shaped structure known as a double helix and carries the genetic instructions that are passed from parents to offspring. DNA replication is the process where DNA copies itself before cell division, involving unwinding of the DNA strands, formation of a replication fork, and synthesis of new strands along the original templates.
Non-coding RNA (ncRNA) is a functional RNA molecule that is not translated into a protein. There are several types of ncRNAs including transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and microRNAs. tRNA transfers amino acids to sites of protein synthesis during translation. rRNA forms ribosomes and catalyzes peptide bond formation. ncRNAs are involved in many cellular processes like translation, splicing, and gene regulation. Dysregulation of ncRNAs can cause diseases like cancer.
This document discusses the Hardy-Weinberg law, which states that gene and genotype frequencies in a random mating population will remain constant from generation to generation if there is no selection, migration, mutation, or genetic drift. It provides an example of how to calculate genotype frequencies based on allele frequencies. Several factors that can disrupt Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium are described, including migration, mutation, genetic drift, inbreeding, and selection. The document was prepared by Kiran Dasanal to explain the basic principles of the Hardy-Weinberg law and factors affecting allele frequencies in populations.
We have seen the widespread adoption of VarSeq in the clinic. It is chosen for its versatility and flexibility as well as the extensive catalog of annotations provided by Golden Helix. In a genetic testing scenario, VarSeq provides the annotated and filtered list of high-quality variants to that are ready for the user to classify and interpret.
In this webcast, we introduce a new product VSClinical that enables the interpretation of variants following the ACMG Guidelines. By incorporating new algorithms and annotation sources, detailed variant scoring and classification can occur right within VarSeq and without the need for additional external tools or resources.
Join us to see these upcoming capabilities:
Streamline the ACMG scoring guidelines with supportive recommendation and incorporated historical precedence
See the new algorithms behind the automated recommendation algorithm, and how they provide various levels of evidence
Drill down to an unprecedented level of supporting evidence for mutation hot spots, splice site predictions, and related clinical assertions
Build your own lab practices around new capabilities of blinded interpretations, collaborative interpretation review and detailed audit logs for CLIA compliance
Finalize your interpretation for a sample and compose the clinical report with the classified variants and their interpretation
In combination, this can be a game-changer for any clinical lab looking to improve their efficiency and reproducibility of the most complex step in the genetic testing workflow.
1) The document discusses various epigenetic mechanisms including DNA methylation, covalent histone modifications, chromatin remodeling, and non-coding RNA. It describes how these mechanisms regulate gene expression without changing DNA sequences.
2) Key epigenetic processes discussed are RNA interference, X-chromosome inactivation, and genomic imprinting. Misregulation of epigenetic patterns are observed in many human diseases and cancers.
3) Techniques for studying epigenetics include sodium bisulfite conversion, methylation-sensitive restriction enzymes, MeDIP, ChIP, and whole genome sequencing. Integrating these with epigenomic data analysis provides tools to investigate epigenetic processes.
2016. daisuke tsugama. next generation sequencing (ngs) for plant researchFOODCROPS
Ìý
This document provides an overview of next-generation sequencing (NGS) for plant research. It discusses the main NGS platforms, data analysis procedures including assembly, mapping, and applications such as RNA-seq, genome sequencing, RAD-seq, MutMap, and QTL-seq. The document aims to explain what NGS is, typical analysis workflows, and how NGS can be applied to questions in plant research.
The document discusses Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, which describes the genetic variation in an ideal population where evolutionary forces are not present. It provides the five conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and describes how the Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to calculate expected allele and genotype frequencies. The document also gives an example of using the equation to analyze the frequency of albinism alleles in the human population.
What is PCR?
History of PCR
Components of PCR
Principles of PCR
Basic Requirements
Instrumentation
PCR Programme
Advantages of PCR
Applications of PCR
Conclusion
References
Transcription in prokaryotes:mRNA,rRNA and tRNA transcription.Study Buddy
Ìý
This ppt tells you about the details of transcription in prokaryotes; the initiation, elongation and the termination steps. It not only covers the mRNA transcription, but also the rRNA and tRNA transcription.
SNPs are found in
coding and (mostly) noncoding regions.
Occur with a very high frequency
about 1 in 1000 bases to 1 in 100 to 300 bases.
The abundance of SNPs and the ease with which they can be measured make these genetic variations significant.
SNPs close to particular gene acts as a marker for that gene.
SNPs in coding regions may alter the protein structure made by that coding region.
A SNP is defined as a single base change in a DNA sequence that occurs in a significant proportion (more than 1 percent) of a large population. Sequence genomes of a large number of people
Compare the base sequences to discover SNPs.
Generate a single map of the human genome containing all possible SNPs => SNP maps
This document provides information about population genetics and the Hardy-Weinberg principle of genetic equilibrium. It defines key population genetics concepts such as gene pool, allele frequencies, and genotypes. It describes the five conditions required for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium: large population size, random mating, no mutations, no migration, and no natural selection. Examples are provided to demonstrate how to calculate allele and genotype frequencies using the Hardy-Weinberg equation.
Eukaryotic gene regulation PART II 2013Jill Howlin
Ìý
This document provides an overview of techniques for analyzing gene expression and regulation. It discusses RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) and its applications like whole transcriptome analysis and mRNA sequencing. It also covers chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by sequencing (ChIP-seq) to map DNA-protein interactions genome-wide. Microarrays are mentioned as earlier techniques that were replaced by high-throughput sequencing methods allowing for comprehensive analysis of transcription factors, histone modifications, and regulatory elements without prior sequence knowledge.
The document summarizes key concepts about gene expression and the flow of genetic information from DNA to protein. It discusses how genes specify proteins through transcription and translation. Transcription involves RNA polymerase making an RNA copy of a gene's sequence, while translation involves ribosomes using that RNA to assemble amino acids in the correct order to make a protein. The genetic code was cracked in the 1960s, revealing that codons of 3 nucleotide bases specify each amino acid. Gene expression is highly regulated and involves initiation, elongation, and termination of transcription by RNA polymerase.
Population genetics reconciled Darwin and Mendel's ideas by showing how natural selection could act on variation present in populations. The Hardy-Weinberg theorem describes genetic equilibrium in a population where allele frequencies remain constant between generations unless disrupted by factors like genetic drift, migration, non-random mating, mutation, or natural selection. These disruptions to equilibrium allow for microevolution and populations to change over time through natural selection acting on genetic variation.
The document summarizes transcription and RNA processing in cells. There is a two step process of transcription and translation required for protein synthesis. Transcription involves synthesizing RNA from a DNA template in the nucleus. Translation occurs in the cytoplasm and converts mRNA into a polypeptide chain. Eukaryotic mRNA undergoes processing including 5' capping, polyadenylation, and splicing of introns from exons before it can be translated. Prokaryotic transcription initiation and termination differ from eukaryotes and involve RNA polymerase binding promoters and terminator sequences.
1. The document compares genetic and linguistic diversity in Europe and finds some correlations between the two.
2. Structural features of languages may provide a better basis for comparison than vocabulary. Principal component analysis of genetic and linguistic data show some similarities in clustering.
3. Recent population mixing can account for some inconsistencies between the genetic and linguistic patterns. Overall, geography, genetics, and language are interrelated but influenced by separate evolutionary processes over long time periods.
This document summarizes research on human genetic population structure and diversity. The key points are:
- 85% of human genetic variation exists within populations, 10% among continental groups, and 5% among populations within the same continent.
- Clustering analyses of genetic data yield inconsistent groupings depending on the traits or markers used, and populations form a continuous gradient without clear boundaries.
- The patterns of genetic diversity are consistent with an origin of modern humans in Africa followed by serial founder effects during dispersal, around 56,000 years ago.
A population is a group of the same species living in a geographical area at a given time. Variation exists between members of a population in structural, biochemical, physiological, developmental, and behavioral traits. This variation is caused by genetic and environmental factors and is maintained in a population at equilibrium by a balance of evolutionary forces. Over time, agents of change like natural selection, genetic drift, migration, and artificial selection can act on populations to change allele frequencies and potentially lead to the formation of new species.
Chromatin, which contains DNA and proteins, is found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Histone proteins help package DNA into chromatin and condense it further into chromosomes during cell division. DNA is a double-stranded polymer composed of nucleotides containing a sugar, phosphate, and one of four nitrogenous bases. It forms the twisted ladder-shaped structure known as a double helix and carries the genetic instructions that are passed from parents to offspring. DNA replication is the process where DNA copies itself before cell division, involving unwinding of the DNA strands, formation of a replication fork, and synthesis of new strands along the original templates.
Non-coding RNA (ncRNA) is a functional RNA molecule that is not translated into a protein. There are several types of ncRNAs including transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and microRNAs. tRNA transfers amino acids to sites of protein synthesis during translation. rRNA forms ribosomes and catalyzes peptide bond formation. ncRNAs are involved in many cellular processes like translation, splicing, and gene regulation. Dysregulation of ncRNAs can cause diseases like cancer.
This document discusses the Hardy-Weinberg law, which states that gene and genotype frequencies in a random mating population will remain constant from generation to generation if there is no selection, migration, mutation, or genetic drift. It provides an example of how to calculate genotype frequencies based on allele frequencies. Several factors that can disrupt Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium are described, including migration, mutation, genetic drift, inbreeding, and selection. The document was prepared by Kiran Dasanal to explain the basic principles of the Hardy-Weinberg law and factors affecting allele frequencies in populations.
We have seen the widespread adoption of VarSeq in the clinic. It is chosen for its versatility and flexibility as well as the extensive catalog of annotations provided by Golden Helix. In a genetic testing scenario, VarSeq provides the annotated and filtered list of high-quality variants to that are ready for the user to classify and interpret.
In this webcast, we introduce a new product VSClinical that enables the interpretation of variants following the ACMG Guidelines. By incorporating new algorithms and annotation sources, detailed variant scoring and classification can occur right within VarSeq and without the need for additional external tools or resources.
Join us to see these upcoming capabilities:
Streamline the ACMG scoring guidelines with supportive recommendation and incorporated historical precedence
See the new algorithms behind the automated recommendation algorithm, and how they provide various levels of evidence
Drill down to an unprecedented level of supporting evidence for mutation hot spots, splice site predictions, and related clinical assertions
Build your own lab practices around new capabilities of blinded interpretations, collaborative interpretation review and detailed audit logs for CLIA compliance
Finalize your interpretation for a sample and compose the clinical report with the classified variants and their interpretation
In combination, this can be a game-changer for any clinical lab looking to improve their efficiency and reproducibility of the most complex step in the genetic testing workflow.
1) The document discusses various epigenetic mechanisms including DNA methylation, covalent histone modifications, chromatin remodeling, and non-coding RNA. It describes how these mechanisms regulate gene expression without changing DNA sequences.
2) Key epigenetic processes discussed are RNA interference, X-chromosome inactivation, and genomic imprinting. Misregulation of epigenetic patterns are observed in many human diseases and cancers.
3) Techniques for studying epigenetics include sodium bisulfite conversion, methylation-sensitive restriction enzymes, MeDIP, ChIP, and whole genome sequencing. Integrating these with epigenomic data analysis provides tools to investigate epigenetic processes.
2016. daisuke tsugama. next generation sequencing (ngs) for plant researchFOODCROPS
Ìý
This document provides an overview of next-generation sequencing (NGS) for plant research. It discusses the main NGS platforms, data analysis procedures including assembly, mapping, and applications such as RNA-seq, genome sequencing, RAD-seq, MutMap, and QTL-seq. The document aims to explain what NGS is, typical analysis workflows, and how NGS can be applied to questions in plant research.
The document discusses Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, which describes the genetic variation in an ideal population where evolutionary forces are not present. It provides the five conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and describes how the Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to calculate expected allele and genotype frequencies. The document also gives an example of using the equation to analyze the frequency of albinism alleles in the human population.
What is PCR?
History of PCR
Components of PCR
Principles of PCR
Basic Requirements
Instrumentation
PCR Programme
Advantages of PCR
Applications of PCR
Conclusion
References
Transcription in prokaryotes:mRNA,rRNA and tRNA transcription.Study Buddy
Ìý
This ppt tells you about the details of transcription in prokaryotes; the initiation, elongation and the termination steps. It not only covers the mRNA transcription, but also the rRNA and tRNA transcription.
SNPs are found in
coding and (mostly) noncoding regions.
Occur with a very high frequency
about 1 in 1000 bases to 1 in 100 to 300 bases.
The abundance of SNPs and the ease with which they can be measured make these genetic variations significant.
SNPs close to particular gene acts as a marker for that gene.
SNPs in coding regions may alter the protein structure made by that coding region.
A SNP is defined as a single base change in a DNA sequence that occurs in a significant proportion (more than 1 percent) of a large population. Sequence genomes of a large number of people
Compare the base sequences to discover SNPs.
Generate a single map of the human genome containing all possible SNPs => SNP maps
This document provides information about population genetics and the Hardy-Weinberg principle of genetic equilibrium. It defines key population genetics concepts such as gene pool, allele frequencies, and genotypes. It describes the five conditions required for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium: large population size, random mating, no mutations, no migration, and no natural selection. Examples are provided to demonstrate how to calculate allele and genotype frequencies using the Hardy-Weinberg equation.
Eukaryotic gene regulation PART II 2013Jill Howlin
Ìý
This document provides an overview of techniques for analyzing gene expression and regulation. It discusses RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) and its applications like whole transcriptome analysis and mRNA sequencing. It also covers chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by sequencing (ChIP-seq) to map DNA-protein interactions genome-wide. Microarrays are mentioned as earlier techniques that were replaced by high-throughput sequencing methods allowing for comprehensive analysis of transcription factors, histone modifications, and regulatory elements without prior sequence knowledge.
The document summarizes key concepts about gene expression and the flow of genetic information from DNA to protein. It discusses how genes specify proteins through transcription and translation. Transcription involves RNA polymerase making an RNA copy of a gene's sequence, while translation involves ribosomes using that RNA to assemble amino acids in the correct order to make a protein. The genetic code was cracked in the 1960s, revealing that codons of 3 nucleotide bases specify each amino acid. Gene expression is highly regulated and involves initiation, elongation, and termination of transcription by RNA polymerase.
Population genetics reconciled Darwin and Mendel's ideas by showing how natural selection could act on variation present in populations. The Hardy-Weinberg theorem describes genetic equilibrium in a population where allele frequencies remain constant between generations unless disrupted by factors like genetic drift, migration, non-random mating, mutation, or natural selection. These disruptions to equilibrium allow for microevolution and populations to change over time through natural selection acting on genetic variation.
The document summarizes transcription and RNA processing in cells. There is a two step process of transcription and translation required for protein synthesis. Transcription involves synthesizing RNA from a DNA template in the nucleus. Translation occurs in the cytoplasm and converts mRNA into a polypeptide chain. Eukaryotic mRNA undergoes processing including 5' capping, polyadenylation, and splicing of introns from exons before it can be translated. Prokaryotic transcription initiation and termination differ from eukaryotes and involve RNA polymerase binding promoters and terminator sequences.
1. The document compares genetic and linguistic diversity in Europe and finds some correlations between the two.
2. Structural features of languages may provide a better basis for comparison than vocabulary. Principal component analysis of genetic and linguistic data show some similarities in clustering.
3. Recent population mixing can account for some inconsistencies between the genetic and linguistic patterns. Overall, geography, genetics, and language are interrelated but influenced by separate evolutionary processes over long time periods.
This document summarizes research on human genetic population structure and diversity. The key points are:
- 85% of human genetic variation exists within populations, 10% among continental groups, and 5% among populations within the same continent.
- Clustering analyses of genetic data yield inconsistent groupings depending on the traits or markers used, and populations form a continuous gradient without clear boundaries.
- The patterns of genetic diversity are consistent with an origin of modern humans in Africa followed by serial founder effects during dispersal, around 56,000 years ago.
1. The document discusses three main questions regarding human evolutionary genetics: the debate between hybridization models vs. the Southern dispersal route out of Africa, the coevolution of cultural and biological diversity, and challenges to the persistence of racial paradigms given genomic data.
2. Regarding the first question, the author notes several problems with hybridization hypotheses and presents evidence supporting an earlier dispersal of modern humans out of Africa via a Southern route, avoiding contact with Neanderthals.
3. For the second question, the author reviews evidence that increases in brain size did not necessarily correlate with genes associated with cognitive functions, and that cultural and linguistic changes likely evolved in parallel with biological changes.
4.
1. The human genome is very similar to the chimpanzee genome, with individual genetic diversity among humans being the lowest of all primates.
2. While population differences among humans are also relatively low, genetic studies show inconsistent clustering of genotypes across genes and loci.
3. Models of human migration out of Africa best explain observed genetic patterns, with gradients of diversity correlated with distance from Africa.
2. Programma del corso
1. Diversità genetica
2. Equilibrio di Hardy-Weinberg
3. Inbreeding
4. Linkage disequilibrium
5. Mutazione
6. Deriva genetica
7. Flusso genico e varianze genetiche
8. Selezione
9. Mantenimento dei polimorfismi e teoria neutrale
10. Introduzione alla teoria coalescente
11. Struttura e storia della popolazione umana
+ Lettura critica di articoli
3. 1. Lamarck: L’ambiente crea
variabilità (mutazione diretta)
Due ipotesi alternative
Da dove viene la variabilità genetica?
4. 2. Darwin: La variabilità preesiste
all’interazione con i fattori
ambientali (mutazione
spontanea)
5. Come provarlo? Colture del batterio Escherichia coli.
Crescita in brodo di
coltura liquido
Piastramento
su terreno
solido
6. Se nel terreno di coltura è presente il batteriofago T2, un parassita di
E.coli, non si osserva crescita batterica
a meno che qualche batterio non abbia acquisito, per mutazione, la
resistenza al batteriofago
13. Classificazione delle mutazioni
A seconda della cellula interessata:
somatica – germinale
A seconda dell’entità :
puntiforme – genica – cromosomica – genomica
A seconda della loro origine:
spontanee – indotte
A seconda dell’effetto
14. Classificazione delle mutazioni puntiformi
in base ai loro effetti sulla sequenza del DNA
Transizione: purina sostituita da purina: A → G o G → A       
pirimidina da pirimidina: C → T o T → C       
Sostituzione
Trasversione: purina sostituita da pirimidina
pirimidina sostituita da purina
Inserzione
Delezione
16. Classificazione delle mutazioni puntiformi in base ai loro
effetti sulla funzione genica
Silenti: la mutazione cambia il codone per un aa in un altro
codone per lo stesso aa
Missenso: la mutazione cambia il codone per un aa in un codone
per un altro aa
Nonsenso: la mutazione cambia il codone per un aa in un
codone di stop
18. Frameshift: Inserzioni o delezioni di 1, 2, 4, 5… nucleotidi
provocano la lettura errata di tutto il tratto di DNA a valle.
19. Inserzioni o delezioni di 3, 6… nucleotidi hanno conseguenze più
limitate sulla proteina
20. Liao et al. (2007) A Heterozygous Frameshift Mutation in the
V1 Domain of Keratin 5 in a Family with Dowling–Degos
Disease
Journal of Investigative Dermatology (2007) 127, 298–300
Papillomi
∗ Invaginazioni che si riempiono di cheratina
Effetti di una mutazione frameshift
nel gene KRT5 per la cheratina
23. Se la mutazione è unidirezionale può alterare le
frequenze alleliche, ma non di molto
Allele A1
mutazione μ (1-μ) non mutazione
Allele A2 Allele A1
p1 = p0 (1-μ)
24. Se la mutazione è unidirezionale può alterare le
frequenze alleliche, ma non di molto
p1 = p0 (1-μ) p2 = p1 (1-μ)
p2 = p0 (1-μ) (1-μ) = p0 (1-μ)2
pt = p0 (1-μ)t
26. Se la mutazione è bidirezionale può alterare le
frequenze alleliche, ma non di molto
1-μ μ 1-ν ν
t-1
t
pt-1
1- pt-1
pt = (1-μ) pt-1 + ν(1-pt-1) pt ≈ p0 –tμ
Frequenza di equilibrio: p = ν / (μ + ν)
27. Cambiamenti nella frequenza allelica per effetto di un processo di
mutazione bidirezionale; μ = 0.00003, ν = 0.00001
generazioni 10000 20000 30000 40000
Frequenza di equilibrio: p = ν / (μ + ν) = 0.25
Frequenza di equilibrio: p = ν / (μ + ν)
29. Con le mutazioni si possono calcolare delle date
Più tempo passa, più mutazioni si accumulano
Il numero di mutazioni che separa due specie è proporzionale al tempo
intercorso dall’antenato comune
30. Conoscendo (p.e.s., sulla base di dati fossili) il tempo di separazione fra la
specie A e la specie B, possiamo calcolare un tasso di differenziazione
molecolare, che poi ci permetterà di stimare i tempi di separazione fra A e
C, D, E, ecc.
L’orologio molecolare
Uomo e scimpanzè si sono separati fra 8 e 6 milioni di anni fa (diciamo 6).
Se per un certo tratto di DNA troviamo fra loro 15 differenze
Tasso di divergenza = TD = 15/6milioni = 2,5 per milione di anni
Se fra uomo e gorilla ci sono 17 differenze, l’antenato comune fra uomo e
gorilla sarà vissuto 17 / 2,5 ≅ 7 milioni di anni fa
32. Si possono fare ragionamenti simili (con molte precauzioni!) anche
riguardo alle differenze molecolari fra aplotipi della stessa specie
33. Tre modelli di mutazione
Alleli infiniti: ogni evento mutazionale genera un
allele diverso
Siti infiniti: ogni evento mutazionale colpisce un
sito diverso
Stepwise: ogni evento mutazionale allunga o
accorcia di un repeat un locus STR o VNTR
34. Alleli infiniti : ogni evento mutazionale genera un
allele diverso
(Kimura e Crow 1964) si chiedono a che proporzione dei loci un individuo
sia, in media, omozigote
In una popolazione di dimensioni N, per loci a cui non c’è selezione, calcolano:
Omozigosi: Fatt = 1 / (1+ 4Nμ) Eterozigosi: Hatt = 4Nμ / (1+ 4Nμ)
Kimura, M. and Crow, J (1964). The number of alleles that can be maintained in a finite
population. Genetics 49: 725–738.
Il numero n di alleli che può essere mantenuto nella popolazione è l’inverso
dell’omozigosi: n = 1+ 4Nμ
35. Nel modello ad alleli infiniti il livello di eterozigosi è
associato in modo non banale al tasso di mutazione
Hatt = (4Neµ) / (4Neµ + 1)
Popolazione grande: (4Neµ) ≈ (4Neµ + 1)
Popolazione piccola: (4Neµ) < (4Neµ + 1)
Es.: con µ= 10-7
, Ne
= 106
Ne
µ = 0.1 e Hatt = (0.4)/(0.4 + 1) = 0.29
Nell’uomo Hoss
= 0.20
37. Stepwise: ogni evento mutazionale allunga o
accorcia di un repeat un locus STR o VNTR
38. Il livello di eterozigosi è associato in modo
non banale al tasso di mutazione
Ma l’eterozigosi riflette l’equilibrio fra la comparsa di nuovi alleli dovuta
alla mutazione e la loro perdita dovuta alla deriva
39. Associare a ciascuna definizione il termine corrispondente.
1.Sostituzione nucleotidica che genera un codone di stop
2.Perdita o acquisto di un tratto di DNA
3.Sostituzione nucleotidica che provoca il cambio di un codone in un altro codone per lo stesso
amminoacido
4.Sostituzione di una pirimidina con una purina, o viceversa
5.Sostituzione nucleotidica che provoca il cambio di un codone in un codone per un altro
amminoacido
6.Perdita o acquisto di pochi nucleotidi, che alterano la lettura della sequenza in tutto il tratto a valle
7.Sostituzione, perdita o acquisto di un singolo nucleotide
a. Indel b. Trasversione c. Puntiforme d. Silente
e. Nonsenso f. Missenso g. Frameshift
Vediamo se ci siamo capiti
40. Sintesi
• La mutazione avviene a bassa frequenza e quindi ha solo
un debole impatto diretto sulla diversità genetica (e un
forte impatto sulla divergenza fra sequenze)
• Assumendo che il tasso di mutazione sia costante, si
possono stimare da dati genetici le date di divergenze fra
diverse specie o diverse molecole
• Per descrivere gli effetti della mutazione esistono vari
modelli: ad alleli infiniti, a siti infiniti, stepwise