Five factors drive evolution in populations: mutation, migration, genetic drift, natural selection, and nonrandom mating. Genetic drift is the change in allele frequencies that occurs due to random sampling error in small populations. It can cause alleles to be lost or fixed in a population by chance alone, independent of adaptive effects. The rate of genetic drift is influenced by population size, with smaller populations experiencing stronger drift effects due to increased sampling error. Effective population size is often much smaller than actual population size due to factors like unequal sex ratios. Genetic drift reduces genetic diversity over time and can cause maladaptive evolution if drift is stronger than selection.
Transcription in prokaryotes:mRNA,rRNA and tRNA transcription.Study Buddy
Ìý
This ppt tells you about the details of transcription in prokaryotes; the initiation, elongation and the termination steps. It not only covers the mRNA transcription, but also the rRNA and tRNA transcription.
Here are the solutions to the try these problems:
1. a) T allele frequency = (88/125) + (1/2)*(37/125) = 0.72
t allele frequency = 1 - 0.72 = 0.28
b) TT genotype frequency = 0.72^2 = 0.52
Tt genotype frequency = 2*0.72*0.28 = 0.48
tt genotype frequency = 0.28^2 = 0.08
2. p = 200/300 = 0.667
q = 1 - p = 0.333
3. a) Recessive allele frequency = √(1/2500) = 0.02
b
Translation initiation in eukaryotes is a highly regulated and rate-limiting process that involves the assembly of numerous transient complexes containing over a dozen eukaryotic initiation factors. This process culminates in the accommodation of a start codon at the appropriate ribosomal site. Structural biology has provided insights into the mammalian mitochondrial translation initiation complex and other key complexes and factors involved in the process, such as eIF3, the eIF2 ternary complex, and the DHX29 helicase. Dysregulation of translation initiation can contribute to diseases like cancer and metabolic disorders.
Chromosomes are rod-shaped structures found in the nucleus of cells that carry genetic information in the form of DNA. They were first described in 1875 and are visible during cell division. Chromosomes exist in two types - autosomes which control non-sex characteristics, and sex chromosomes which determine sex. Each chromosome has a centromere, short and long arms, and telomeres at the ends. The number of chromosomes varies between species but cells of an individual normally contain an even number of matched chromosomes. Chromatin is the combination of DNA and proteins that packages DNA within the nucleus, and exists in either loosely coiled euchromatin form or tightly coiled heterochromatin form.
The document discusses the identification of DNA as the genetic material. It describes Griffith's transformation experiments in 1928 which showed that something from dead bacterial cells was transforming live bacterial cells. Avery, MacLeod and McCarty in 1944 identified that this transforming principle was DNA. Their experiments showed that only extracts containing purified DNA were able to transform bacterial cells, establishing DNA as the genetic material. The document also discusses the work of Chargaff, Hershey and Chase, and others that provided further evidence supporting DNA as the carrier of genetic information.
Friedrich Miescher isolated nuclein from white blood cell nuclei in 1868, which showed acidic properties and was renamed nucleic acid. Nucleic acids are present in all living cells and viruses, containing the genetic blueprint and instructions for growth, development, and reproduction. There are two main types: DNA containing deoxyribose and the bases A, G, T, C; and RNA containing ribose and the bases A, G, U, C. Nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides containing a phosphate group, sugar, and nitrogenous base. DNA has a double-stranded structure with bases pairing via hydrogen bonds, while RNA is single-stranded.
This document discusses epigenetics and provides an overview of key concepts. It begins with a brief history of epigenetics research from the 1940s to present day. It then defines epigenetics as the study of heritable alterations in gene expression that do not involve changes to DNA sequence. Several epigenetic mechanisms are identified, including DNA methylation, histone modification, and non-coding RNA. The document notes that epigenetic changes are involved in various diseases and disorders. It also discusses how environmental, behavioral, dietary, and psychological factors can influence epigenetics.
This PowerPoint is applicable for the medical, paramedical, and all the life science students who read the mechanism of gene expression. This is equally useful for teachers as well. This is the comprehensive coverage on the aforementioned topic.
The change in one nucleotide in a genome is known as single nucleotide polymorphism. There are assorted types of SNPs. SNPs can be detected by several analytical techniques i.e. DNA sequencing, microchip, HPLC and oligonucleotide ligation reaction.
Genetic information is stored in DNA molecules as sequences of nucleotides. DNA exists as paired strands that run in opposite directions and are complementary to each other. The genome contains an organism's complete set of DNA and is organized into chromosomes. Genomes can differ between species through point mutations that change single nucleotides or genome rearrangements that modify multiple nucleotides. Rearrangements include reversals, translocations, fissions, and fusions that change the order of genes within and between chromosomes. The minimum number of edits needed to transform one genome into another, including point mutations and rearrangements, defines their edit distance and can provide insights into evolutionary relationships.
Chromosomes contain DNA and carry genetic information. DNA is made up of nucleotides that form a double helix structure. Genes are segments of DNA that code for specific traits. Humans have 46 chromosomes in most cells organized into 23 pairs. During cell division, the DNA duplicates so each new cell contains a full copy. DNA codes for proteins using a genetic code where three nucleotides correspond to a single amino acid. RNA is similar to DNA but contains one strand and uracil instead of thymine. It helps carry genetic instructions from DNA in the nucleus to the cytoplasm for protein production through transcription and translation.
- The student conducted an experiment crossing Drosophila F1 phenotypes to obtain F2 phenotypes.
- They counted 53 wild type flies and 19 sepia flies in the F2 generation.
- A chi-square test found the observed ratio of phenotypes (53:19) did not significantly deviate from the expected Mendelian ratio of 3:1, with a chi-square value of 0.074 and p-value above 0.05.
- Therefore, the results supported the hypothesis that the sepia mutation behaves as an autosomal recessive trait.
Protein targeting or protein sorting is the biological mechanism by which proteins are transported to their appropriate destinations in the cell or outside it. Proteins can be targeted to the inner space of an organelle, different intracellular membranes, plasma membrane, or to exterior of the cell via secretion.
DNA sequencing determines the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. The Sanger dideoxy chain termination method is commonly used and involves DNA polymerase, dNTPs, and chain-terminating ddNTPs. This generates DNA fragments of different lengths that can be separated by gel electrophoresis and used to determine the DNA sequence. Modern sequencing uses fluorescent dye-labeled ddNTPs and capillary electrophoresis for higher throughput automated sequencing. DNA sequencing is important for understanding genetic disorders and developing treatments.
DNA must be tightly packaged for a cell to accommodate its large amount of genetic material. There are two main types of DNA packaging - in prokaryotes, negatively charged DNA binds to positively charged proteins at the nucleoid region. In eukaryotes, DNA packaging occurs in stages from nucleosomes to solenoid structures to chromatin to chromatids and finally chromosomes, with histone proteins and coiling allowing the DNA to be highly condensed. DNA first wraps around histone octamers to form nucleosomes, which then coil further into solenoid structures and hypercoil to form chromatin fibers visible during cell division.
This document discusses pseudogenes, which are dysfunctional copies of genes that have lost protein-coding ability. It covers the origin and formation of pseudogenes through DNA or RNA duplication, and describes different types like processed and unprocessed pseudogenes. The document also discusses various methods for identifying and detecting pseudogenes, databases of pseudogenes, and studies that have characterized pseudogenes in organisms like rice and Solanum plants. Finally, it explores the potential functions and utilities of pseudogenes, including their use in evolutionary studies, providing information about gene expression, and acting as competing endogenous RNAs.
Microarray is a technique that arranges biological molecules like DNA on a solid surface to investigate a large number of genes simultaneously. It originated in 1995 when DNA microarrays were first reported for monitoring gene expression patterns. There are different types of microarrays like spotted and in-situ synthesized oligonucleotide arrays. The basic steps of a microarray experiment include array printing, sample preparation/labeling, hybridization, washing, scanning and data analysis. It has various applications in gene expression analysis, disease diagnosis, drug discovery and more. Though expensive, microarrays allow fast, high-throughput analysis of thousands of genes.
RNA editing is a term associated with structural changes in an RNA strand that alter its coding properties. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions include nucleotide and oligonucleotide insertions and deletions as well as base modifications. The diversity of coding strands created by these reactions contributes to the protein diversity present in cells of higher organisms. In this review, we highlight advances in our understanding of the structure, mechanism, regulation, and biological functions of the ADAR enzymes published in the last five years. The ADARs (adenosine deaminases that act on RNA) are multidomain enzymes capable of converting adenosine to inosine at specific locations in certain RNA substrates. These reactions can change codon meaning in mRNA and lead to changes in the structures of proteins, including ligand-gated and voltage-gated ion channels and G-protein coupled receptors expressed in the central nervous system.
The document discusses a student's seminar topic on the structure of DNA. It thanks college administrators and teachers for guidance. The summary outlines DNA's key components - phosphoric acid, deoxyribose sugar, and nitrogenous bases. DNA exists as a double helix with two polynucleotide chains coiled around each other. Hydrogen bonds between complementary bases on the chains hold the structure together.
Segmentation in Drosophila melanogaster Shreya Ahuja
Ìý
All human beings, no matter how different we look, have a certain basic body plan established in us (for instance, all of us have our heads are placed right above our shoulders with arms stretching out from either side). Drosophila is no exception. This presentation talks about establishment of the body plan in Drosophila, how and when the different Segmentation Genes are expressed in Drosophila to give rise to its segmented body pattern.
What is PCR?
History of PCR
Components of PCR
Principles of PCR
Basic Requirements
Instrumentation
PCR Programme
Advantages of PCR
Applications of PCR
Conclusion
References
Genetic experiment on the offspring of drosophila melanogasterJoniqua Christopher
Ìý
1) The experiment aimed to determine if mating Drosophila melanogaster in a dihybrid cross would yield results similar to Mendel's 9:3:3:1 ratio by observing inheritance of eye color (red vs white) and body color (ebony vs brown).
2) The F1 generation showed more dominant traits than recessive, but not all were dominant as in Mendel's experiments. The F2 results using a chi-square test did not match the expected 9:3:3:1 ratio.
3) Errors were made in transferring flies between generations that may have impacted the results, which were ultimately deemed inconclusive. Proper fly handling and food preparation are needed to obtain clear results.
This document summarizes research on human genetic population structure and diversity. The key points are:
- 85% of human genetic variation exists within populations, 10% among continental groups, and 5% among populations within the same continent.
- Clustering analyses of genetic data yield inconsistent groupings depending on the traits or markers used, and populations form a continuous gradient without clear boundaries.
- The patterns of genetic diversity are consistent with an origin of modern humans in Africa followed by serial founder effects during dispersal, around 56,000 years ago.
Chromosomes are rod-shaped structures found in the nucleus of cells that carry genetic information in the form of DNA. They were first described in 1875 and are visible during cell division. Chromosomes exist in two types - autosomes which control non-sex characteristics, and sex chromosomes which determine sex. Each chromosome has a centromere, short and long arms, and telomeres at the ends. The number of chromosomes varies between species but cells of an individual normally contain an even number of matched chromosomes. Chromatin is the combination of DNA and proteins that packages DNA within the nucleus, and exists in either loosely coiled euchromatin form or tightly coiled heterochromatin form.
The document discusses the identification of DNA as the genetic material. It describes Griffith's transformation experiments in 1928 which showed that something from dead bacterial cells was transforming live bacterial cells. Avery, MacLeod and McCarty in 1944 identified that this transforming principle was DNA. Their experiments showed that only extracts containing purified DNA were able to transform bacterial cells, establishing DNA as the genetic material. The document also discusses the work of Chargaff, Hershey and Chase, and others that provided further evidence supporting DNA as the carrier of genetic information.
Friedrich Miescher isolated nuclein from white blood cell nuclei in 1868, which showed acidic properties and was renamed nucleic acid. Nucleic acids are present in all living cells and viruses, containing the genetic blueprint and instructions for growth, development, and reproduction. There are two main types: DNA containing deoxyribose and the bases A, G, T, C; and RNA containing ribose and the bases A, G, U, C. Nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides containing a phosphate group, sugar, and nitrogenous base. DNA has a double-stranded structure with bases pairing via hydrogen bonds, while RNA is single-stranded.
This document discusses epigenetics and provides an overview of key concepts. It begins with a brief history of epigenetics research from the 1940s to present day. It then defines epigenetics as the study of heritable alterations in gene expression that do not involve changes to DNA sequence. Several epigenetic mechanisms are identified, including DNA methylation, histone modification, and non-coding RNA. The document notes that epigenetic changes are involved in various diseases and disorders. It also discusses how environmental, behavioral, dietary, and psychological factors can influence epigenetics.
This PowerPoint is applicable for the medical, paramedical, and all the life science students who read the mechanism of gene expression. This is equally useful for teachers as well. This is the comprehensive coverage on the aforementioned topic.
The change in one nucleotide in a genome is known as single nucleotide polymorphism. There are assorted types of SNPs. SNPs can be detected by several analytical techniques i.e. DNA sequencing, microchip, HPLC and oligonucleotide ligation reaction.
Genetic information is stored in DNA molecules as sequences of nucleotides. DNA exists as paired strands that run in opposite directions and are complementary to each other. The genome contains an organism's complete set of DNA and is organized into chromosomes. Genomes can differ between species through point mutations that change single nucleotides or genome rearrangements that modify multiple nucleotides. Rearrangements include reversals, translocations, fissions, and fusions that change the order of genes within and between chromosomes. The minimum number of edits needed to transform one genome into another, including point mutations and rearrangements, defines their edit distance and can provide insights into evolutionary relationships.
Chromosomes contain DNA and carry genetic information. DNA is made up of nucleotides that form a double helix structure. Genes are segments of DNA that code for specific traits. Humans have 46 chromosomes in most cells organized into 23 pairs. During cell division, the DNA duplicates so each new cell contains a full copy. DNA codes for proteins using a genetic code where three nucleotides correspond to a single amino acid. RNA is similar to DNA but contains one strand and uracil instead of thymine. It helps carry genetic instructions from DNA in the nucleus to the cytoplasm for protein production through transcription and translation.
- The student conducted an experiment crossing Drosophila F1 phenotypes to obtain F2 phenotypes.
- They counted 53 wild type flies and 19 sepia flies in the F2 generation.
- A chi-square test found the observed ratio of phenotypes (53:19) did not significantly deviate from the expected Mendelian ratio of 3:1, with a chi-square value of 0.074 and p-value above 0.05.
- Therefore, the results supported the hypothesis that the sepia mutation behaves as an autosomal recessive trait.
Protein targeting or protein sorting is the biological mechanism by which proteins are transported to their appropriate destinations in the cell or outside it. Proteins can be targeted to the inner space of an organelle, different intracellular membranes, plasma membrane, or to exterior of the cell via secretion.
DNA sequencing determines the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. The Sanger dideoxy chain termination method is commonly used and involves DNA polymerase, dNTPs, and chain-terminating ddNTPs. This generates DNA fragments of different lengths that can be separated by gel electrophoresis and used to determine the DNA sequence. Modern sequencing uses fluorescent dye-labeled ddNTPs and capillary electrophoresis for higher throughput automated sequencing. DNA sequencing is important for understanding genetic disorders and developing treatments.
DNA must be tightly packaged for a cell to accommodate its large amount of genetic material. There are two main types of DNA packaging - in prokaryotes, negatively charged DNA binds to positively charged proteins at the nucleoid region. In eukaryotes, DNA packaging occurs in stages from nucleosomes to solenoid structures to chromatin to chromatids and finally chromosomes, with histone proteins and coiling allowing the DNA to be highly condensed. DNA first wraps around histone octamers to form nucleosomes, which then coil further into solenoid structures and hypercoil to form chromatin fibers visible during cell division.
This document discusses pseudogenes, which are dysfunctional copies of genes that have lost protein-coding ability. It covers the origin and formation of pseudogenes through DNA or RNA duplication, and describes different types like processed and unprocessed pseudogenes. The document also discusses various methods for identifying and detecting pseudogenes, databases of pseudogenes, and studies that have characterized pseudogenes in organisms like rice and Solanum plants. Finally, it explores the potential functions and utilities of pseudogenes, including their use in evolutionary studies, providing information about gene expression, and acting as competing endogenous RNAs.
Microarray is a technique that arranges biological molecules like DNA on a solid surface to investigate a large number of genes simultaneously. It originated in 1995 when DNA microarrays were first reported for monitoring gene expression patterns. There are different types of microarrays like spotted and in-situ synthesized oligonucleotide arrays. The basic steps of a microarray experiment include array printing, sample preparation/labeling, hybridization, washing, scanning and data analysis. It has various applications in gene expression analysis, disease diagnosis, drug discovery and more. Though expensive, microarrays allow fast, high-throughput analysis of thousands of genes.
RNA editing is a term associated with structural changes in an RNA strand that alter its coding properties. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions include nucleotide and oligonucleotide insertions and deletions as well as base modifications. The diversity of coding strands created by these reactions contributes to the protein diversity present in cells of higher organisms. In this review, we highlight advances in our understanding of the structure, mechanism, regulation, and biological functions of the ADAR enzymes published in the last five years. The ADARs (adenosine deaminases that act on RNA) are multidomain enzymes capable of converting adenosine to inosine at specific locations in certain RNA substrates. These reactions can change codon meaning in mRNA and lead to changes in the structures of proteins, including ligand-gated and voltage-gated ion channels and G-protein coupled receptors expressed in the central nervous system.
The document discusses a student's seminar topic on the structure of DNA. It thanks college administrators and teachers for guidance. The summary outlines DNA's key components - phosphoric acid, deoxyribose sugar, and nitrogenous bases. DNA exists as a double helix with two polynucleotide chains coiled around each other. Hydrogen bonds between complementary bases on the chains hold the structure together.
Segmentation in Drosophila melanogaster Shreya Ahuja
Ìý
All human beings, no matter how different we look, have a certain basic body plan established in us (for instance, all of us have our heads are placed right above our shoulders with arms stretching out from either side). Drosophila is no exception. This presentation talks about establishment of the body plan in Drosophila, how and when the different Segmentation Genes are expressed in Drosophila to give rise to its segmented body pattern.
What is PCR?
History of PCR
Components of PCR
Principles of PCR
Basic Requirements
Instrumentation
PCR Programme
Advantages of PCR
Applications of PCR
Conclusion
References
Genetic experiment on the offspring of drosophila melanogasterJoniqua Christopher
Ìý
1) The experiment aimed to determine if mating Drosophila melanogaster in a dihybrid cross would yield results similar to Mendel's 9:3:3:1 ratio by observing inheritance of eye color (red vs white) and body color (ebony vs brown).
2) The F1 generation showed more dominant traits than recessive, but not all were dominant as in Mendel's experiments. The F2 results using a chi-square test did not match the expected 9:3:3:1 ratio.
3) Errors were made in transferring flies between generations that may have impacted the results, which were ultimately deemed inconclusive. Proper fly handling and food preparation are needed to obtain clear results.
This document summarizes research on human genetic population structure and diversity. The key points are:
- 85% of human genetic variation exists within populations, 10% among continental groups, and 5% among populations within the same continent.
- Clustering analyses of genetic data yield inconsistent groupings depending on the traits or markers used, and populations form a continuous gradient without clear boundaries.
- The patterns of genetic diversity are consistent with an origin of modern humans in Africa followed by serial founder effects during dispersal, around 56,000 years ago.
1. The document discusses three main questions regarding human evolutionary genetics: the debate between hybridization models vs. the Southern dispersal route out of Africa, the coevolution of cultural and biological diversity, and challenges to the persistence of racial paradigms given genomic data.
2. Regarding the first question, the author notes several problems with hybridization hypotheses and presents evidence supporting an earlier dispersal of modern humans out of Africa via a Southern route, avoiding contact with Neanderthals.
3. For the second question, the author reviews evidence that increases in brain size did not necessarily correlate with genes associated with cognitive functions, and that cultural and linguistic changes likely evolved in parallel with biological changes.
4.
1. The document compares genetic and linguistic diversity in Europe and finds some correlations between the two.
2. Structural features of languages may provide a better basis for comparison than vocabulary. Principal component analysis of genetic and linguistic data show some similarities in clustering.
3. Recent population mixing can account for some inconsistencies between the genetic and linguistic patterns. Overall, geography, genetics, and language are interrelated but influenced by separate evolutionary processes over long time periods.
1. The human genome is very similar to the chimpanzee genome, with individual genetic diversity among humans being the lowest of all primates.
2. While population differences among humans are also relatively low, genetic studies show inconsistent clustering of genotypes across genes and loci.
3. Models of human migration out of Africa best explain observed genetic patterns, with gradients of diversity correlated with distance from Africa.
Andrea Baucon, corso di paleontologia - lezione 11 - evoluzione 2 (speciazione)Andrea Baucon
Ìý
Impara i concetti, gli strumenti e le tecniche per esplorare il registro fossile! In questa presentazione apprenderai come fa una nuova specie ad evolversi. La presentazione fa parte del corso di Paleontologia tenuto da Andrea Baucon presso l'Università di Trieste.
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Learn the concepts, tools and techniques to explore the fossil record! In this presentation you will learn how does a new species evolve. The presentation is part of the palaeontology course taught by Andrea Baucon at the University of Trieste, Italy.
Andrea Baucon, corso di paleontologia - lezione 7 - paleoecologia 4 (ecologia...Andrea Baucon
Ìý
Impara i concetti, gli strumenti e le tecniche per esplorare il registro fossile! Questa presentazione è dedicata alla (paleo)ecologia delle popolazioni. La presentazione fa parte del corso di Paleontologia tenuto da Andrea Baucon presso l'Università di Trieste.
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Learn the concepts, tools and techniques to explore the fossil record! This presentation deals with population (palaeo)ecology. The presentation is part of the palaeontology course taught by Andrea Baucon at the University of Trieste, Italy.
Una presentazione sulla teoria dell'evoluzione: dal pre-darwinismo, all'evoluzionismo e oltre. Con un approfondimento sulla filogenesi, la selezione naturale, la deriva, la speciazione e le prove a supporto della teoria.
2. Programma del corso
1. Diversità genetica
2. Equilibrio di Hardy-Weinberg
3. Inbreeding
4. Linkage disequilibrium
5. Mutazione
6. Deriva genetica
7. Flusso genico e varianze genetiche
8. Selezione
9. Mantenimento dei polimorfismi e teoria neutrale
10. Introduzione alla teoria coalescente
11. Struttura e storia della popolazione umana
+ Lettura critica di articoli
3. Deriva genetica significa che c’è una componente
casuale nel successo riproduttivo
Riproduzione asessuata; N costante; ogni individuo lascia 1 discendente
Riproduzione asessuata; N costante; numero variabile di discendenti
4. Se gli individui portano alleli differenti:
fissazione degli alleli
6. Esperimento di Buri
(1956)
Anche l’eterozigosi si riduce
attraverso le generazioni
Buri P. (1956) Gene frequency in small populations of mutant Drosophila. Evolution 10:367-402
7. Condizioni dell’esperimento di Buri
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Organismo diploide, riproduzione sessuata
Generazioni non sovrapposte
Unione casuale
Popolazione grande
Mutazione trascurabile
Migrazione trascurabile
Mortalità indipendente dal genotipo
Fertilità indipendente dal genotipo
9. Simulazione di deriva genetica in popolazioni diploidi di
10000 e 4 individui
La deriva riduce la variabilità entro popolazioni e
aumenta quella fra popolazioni
13. Vediamo se ci siamo capiti
Nei tre grafici abbiamo la
variazione di frequenze
alleliche nel tempo per
effetto della deriva, in tre
serie di esperimenti, ciascuno
effettuato su popolazioni di
dimensioni uguali. In quale
serie le popolazioni erano più
grandi, e in quale più piccole?
14. Vediamo se ci siamo capiti
Alla luce delle simulazioni qui riportate, quale
di queste affermazioni è sbagliata?
a.
b.
c.
d.
La deriva tende a far fissare o a far
perdere gli alleli;
La deriva ha effetti solo in popolazioni
molto piccole;
La deriva agisce indipendentemente
nelle diverse popolazioni;
La deriva produce indifferentemente
fluttuazioni verso l’alto o verso il basso
delle frequenze alleliche.
17. La deriva in teoria
(modello di Wright-Fisher)
• Ci sono molte sottopopolazioni isolate, ciascuna di dimensioni
costanti, N, di cui ½ maschi e ½ femmine
• L’accoppiamento è casuale
• Ogni individuo ha la stessa probabilità di trasmettere I suoi geni alla
generazione successiva
• Le generazioni non si sovrappongono
18. La deriva in teoria
–
–
–
–
2 alleli, A1 e A2
Xt = numero di alleli A1 al tempo t
pij = Pr {Xt+1 = j | Xt = i}
Campionamento binomiale
pi0 = 1 x fr(A1)0 x fr(A2)2N = fr(A2)2N
per j = 0, pij corrisponde alla probabilità di campionare 2N volte A2
19. La deriva in teoria
P4,6 = 10 x (0.6)4 x (0.4)6
4
P (4 blu)
P (6 rossi)
= 210 * 0.004096 * 0.1296 =
= 210 * 0.0053 = 0.111
20. Distribuzione delle frequenze alleliche secondo
Wright e Fisher
La probabilità si fissi ciascun allele è pari alla loro frequenza; quindi
probabilità che un nuovo allele arrivi a fissarsi = 1/2N
31. Effetti della deriva
Gruppi sanguigni in amerindi
Collo di bottiglia
Corea di Huntigton nella regione
di Maracaibo:
Effetto del fondatore (Maria
Concepcion Soto)
32. Effetti della deriva: gruppo sanguigno AB0
Races
A
B
O
AB
Un. States
42%
10%
45%
3%
Chinese
31%
28%
34%
7%
Blackfoot
76%
-----
24%
-----
Navajo
24%
-----
76%
-----
33. Variabilità genetica nel ghepardo
Acinonyx Jubatus
Jubatus
(S. Africa) 2,500
(Namibia) 1,500
(Botswana) 1,500
(Kenya/Tanzania)
Acinonyx Jubatus
Rainey
(E. Africa) less than
1,000
Acinonyx Jubatus
Hecki
(N. Africa) less than
1,000
Acinonyx Jubatus
Venaticus
(Asia) virtually
extinct
Acinonyx Jubatus
Raddei
(Iran/Turkestan)
approx. 200
34. Livelli di eterozigosi per marcatori VNTR
N
H media
A. jubatus jubatus
7
0.280
A. jubatus raineyi
9
0.224
Felis catus
17
0.460
Panthera Leo (Serengeti)
76
0.481
Panthera Leo (Ngorongoro)
6
0.435
Menotti-Raymond & O’Brien 1993
Bottleneck datato al Pleistocene
40. Deriva genetica e speciazione
La probabilità che una nuova specie sia polimorfica dipende dalle frequenze
alleliche nella popolazione fondatrice e dal numero di fondatori (non
imparentati)
41. Dimensioni effettive: Ne
• Ne è il numero di individui per il quale ci si attende un effetto della
deriva pari a quello osservato
• Problema: Si può misurare Ne per la generazione in corso o per alcune
generazioni, ma quello che conta è il suo valore nel lungo periodo
(long-term Ne), che si può solo stimare
• Ne dipende dalla struttura d’età della popolazione; nell’uomo è
comune approssimarlo ad 1/3 della popolazione censita
42. Ne: stime nell’uomo
Atkinson, Gray e Drummond (2008) mtDNA variation predicts population size in humans and
reveals a major Southern Asian chapter in human prehistory. Mol Biol Evol 25:468-474
43. Cosa succede quando
Ne fluttua nel corso del tempo
(es. Lince canadese)?
L’effetto di deriva è forte e non viene espresso dalla media aritmetica ma
dalla media armonica dei valori di Ne.
Esempio:
45. Un esempio: I babbuini di San Antonio
300
Ne = (4 x 30 x 300) / (30 + 300) = 109
30
= 330
46. Sintesi
• La deriva genetica riduce la diversità entro popolazioni e aumenta
quella fra popolazioni
• La deriva genetica dipende dalla variazione casuale del successo
riproduttivo, ed è amplificata da fenomeni quali collo di bottiglia,
effetto del fondatore, fluttuazioni periodiche della popolazione e
rapporto-sessi sbilanciato
• L’effetto principale della deriva genetica è legato alla perdita o alla
fissazione di alleli, il che può contribuire a fenomeni di speciazione
• Per ogni allele, la probabilità di fissazione è pari alla sua frequenza
• L’effetto della deriva genetica è stimato dalla dimensione effettiva
della popolaione, Ne
• Fluttuazioni delle dimensioni della popolazione, o rapporti-sessi
sbilanciati, abbassano sensibilmente il valore medio di Ne